Science Publishing Group: Earth Sciences: Table of Contents
<i>Earth Sciences </i> publishes original, peer-reviewed, theoretical and experimental frontier research papers as well as significant review articles of more general interest to earth scientists. The journal features articles dealing with observations, patterns, processes, and modeling of both innerspheres and outerspheres of the earth. It aims at promoting communications and sharing knowledges among the international earth science communities. Submissions of original articles in English from scientists around the World on relevant subjects are welcome.
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/earth Science Publishing Group: Earth Sciences: Table of Contents
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Earth Sciences
Earth Sciences
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A review of experimental procedures of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (gc-ms) and possible sources of analytical errors
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20120101.11
This paper reviews the experimental procedures of the Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) technique. The objectives of this study are to present a step-by-step procedure involved in the GC-MS analysis and inter-pretations of the resulting data both qualitatively and quantitatively, and to identify the possible sources of analytical errors that may be encountered by young inexperienced organic geochemists. The overall process encompasses ultrasonic solvent extraction, fractionation and GC-MS analysis itself. The qualitative and quantitative information obtained from the GC-MS interpretations when integrated together is capable of giving us an insight into the source or origin, depositional environment and level thermal maturity of the analysed sample. The possible sources of analytical errors may include contamination, measurement errors, mechanical/instrumental errors, fractionation errors, and loading errors on the GC. Analytical geochemists must therefore be aware of these errors among others in order to minimise them to the reasonable level. It is recommended that, if weak signals result from the GC-MS analysis of a fraction, such a fraction should be prepared in higher concentration and re-run using selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode so as to enhance signal to noise ratio, and that the GC-MS data should always be interpreted with GC-MS softwares with biomarkers definitions in order to obtain more reliable and robust interpretations.
This paper reviews the experimental procedures of the Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) technique. The objectives of this study are to present a step-by-step procedure involved in the GC-MS analysis and inter-pretations of the resulting data both qualitatively and quantitatively, and to identify the possible sources of analytical errors that may be encountered by young inexperienced organic geochemists. The overall process encompasses ultrasonic solvent extraction, fractionation and GC-MS analysis itself. The qualitative and quantitative information obtained from the GC-MS interpretations when integrated together is capable of giving us an insight into the source or origin, depositional environment and level thermal maturity of the analysed sample. The possible sources of analytical errors may include contamination, measurement errors, mechanical/instrumental errors, fractionation errors, and loading errors on the GC. Analytical geochemists must therefore be aware of these errors among others in order to minimise them to the reasonable level. It is recommended that, if weak signals result from the GC-MS analysis of a fraction, such a fraction should be prepared in higher concentration and re-run using selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode so as to enhance signal to noise ratio, and that the GC-MS data should always be interpreted with GC-MS softwares with biomarkers definitions in order to obtain more reliable and robust interpretations.
A review of experimental procedures of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (gc-ms) and possible sources of analytical errors
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20120101.11
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Waheed Gbenga Akande
A review of experimental procedures of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (gc-ms) and possible sources of analytical errors
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© Science Publishing Group
Sea Level – Geomagnetic Polarity Correlation as Consequence of Rotation Geodynamics
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130201.11
The general tendencies of sea level and geomagnetic polarity evolution represented by their respective poly-nomial trend lines are metrically congruent and roughly coincident at the first order and prevailingly at the second order periodicities. Our analysis reveals chronological correlation of sea level highs and lows with the quiet and agitated states of geomagnetic field, both causally related to the density-dependent rotation forcing of oceanic/continental crust and the inner/outer core masses respectively. Their correlation thus confirms the role of rotation perturbations as a common pacesetter of the Earth’s surface and interior processes
The general tendencies of sea level and geomagnetic polarity evolution represented by their respective poly-nomial trend lines are metrically congruent and roughly coincident at the first order and prevailingly at the second order periodicities. Our analysis reveals chronological correlation of sea level highs and lows with the quiet and agitated states of geomagnetic field, both causally related to the density-dependent rotation forcing of oceanic/continental crust and the inner/outer core masses respectively. Their correlation thus confirms the role of rotation perturbations as a common pacesetter of the Earth’s surface and interior processes
Sea Level – Geomagnetic Polarity Correlation as Consequence of Rotation Geodynamics
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130201.11
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Valentin Krassilov
Sophia Barinova
Sea Level – Geomagnetic Polarity Correlation as Consequence of Rotation Geodynamics
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© Science Publishing Group
Sediment Yield and Soil Erosion Assessment by Using an Empirical Model of MPSIAC for Afjeh & Lavarak Sub-Watersheds, Iran
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130201.13
Watershed degradation due to soil erosion and sedimentation is one of the major environmental problems in Iran. With respect to the relatively suitable compatibility of MPSIAC model to the arid and semiarid conditions of Iran and lack of hydrometric station in region, we employed the "modified PSIAC model" to estimating of sediment yield and providing sediment yield map in these sub-watersheds. The MPSIAC method incorporates nine environmental factors that contribute to sediment yield of the watershed, this factors are: surface geology, soil, climate, runoff, topography, ground cover, land use, channel and upland erosion. Open-source Geographic Information System (GIS) was used to facilitate the spatial interpolation of the nine model factors and interpretation of predicted sediment yield for the entire watersheds. At first, to enter the available raw data into the GIS framework we digitized the nine factors of maps. In the second stage, digitized maps were encoded with respect to the values of each factor and then these factors of maps were summed together, and finally sedimentation score map was provided. We applied (QS) equation on the sedimentation score map and finally related map was obtained. Various formations basically contain Shaly, Sandstone, Conglomerate and tuff lithology, covered this region more than igneous rocks. The results show that the most values of erosion are in Shaly, Marly, weathered Tuff and alluvial diposites parts of sub-watersheds correlated with sensitive formations such as Karaj and Quaternary sediments. Based on sediment yield map of MPSIAC model, more than 75% of the total sub-watersheds area was classified at class IV of erosion category with high sedimentation. Sub-basin’s erosion were calculated as 769.3 and 583.21 m2/km3 per year for each Afjeh and Lavarak sub-basins by MPSIAC model, respectively. Linear regression analysis between MPSIAC model results and two of most influencing factors on erosion, the geology and soil erodibility indicated that there was a significant correlation. The results of this paper suggested that the model is suitable for predicting yearly average sediment yield of the Iranian watersheds with similar conditions.
Watershed degradation due to soil erosion and sedimentation is one of the major environmental problems in Iran. With respect to the relatively suitable compatibility of MPSIAC model to the arid and semiarid conditions of Iran and lack of hydrometric station in region, we employed the "modified PSIAC model" to estimating of sediment yield and providing sediment yield map in these sub-watersheds. The MPSIAC method incorporates nine environmental factors that contribute to sediment yield of the watershed, this factors are: surface geology, soil, climate, runoff, topography, ground cover, land use, channel and upland erosion. Open-source Geographic Information System (GIS) was used to facilitate the spatial interpolation of the nine model factors and interpretation of predicted sediment yield for the entire watersheds. At first, to enter the available raw data into the GIS framework we digitized the nine factors of maps. In the second stage, digitized maps were encoded with respect to the values of each factor and then these factors of maps were summed together, and finally sedimentation score map was provided. We applied (QS) equation on the sedimentation score map and finally related map was obtained. Various formations basically contain Shaly, Sandstone, Conglomerate and tuff lithology, covered this region more than igneous rocks. The results show that the most values of erosion are in Shaly, Marly, weathered Tuff and alluvial diposites parts of sub-watersheds correlated with sensitive formations such as Karaj and Quaternary sediments. Based on sediment yield map of MPSIAC model, more than 75% of the total sub-watersheds area was classified at class IV of erosion category with high sedimentation. Sub-basin’s erosion were calculated as 769.3 and 583.21 m2/km3 per year for each Afjeh and Lavarak sub-basins by MPSIAC model, respectively. Linear regression analysis between MPSIAC model results and two of most influencing factors on erosion, the geology and soil erodibility indicated that there was a significant correlation. The results of this paper suggested that the model is suitable for predicting yearly average sediment yield of the Iranian watersheds with similar conditions.
Sediment Yield and Soil Erosion Assessment by Using an Empirical Model of MPSIAC for Afjeh & Lavarak Sub-Watersheds, Iran
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130201.13
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Zahra Najm
Nastaran Keyhani
Khalil Rezaei
Ali Naeimi Nezamabad
Seyed Hamid Vaziri
Sediment Yield and Soil Erosion Assessment by Using an Empirical Model of MPSIAC for Afjeh & Lavarak Sub-Watersheds, Iran
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© Science Publishing Group
Tsunami Detection System Using Unusual Animal Behavior- A Specified Approach
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130201.12
Now a days Tsunami is occurring very frequently in all over the word. So it is essential to predict it very earlier before the arrival of Tsunami in order to save many lives. The earthquake can be predicted in three different terms: short- term, intermediate-term, and the long-term. The two major methods of prediction are Geophysical precursors and the unusual animal behavior. This paper focus on the unusual animal behavior by monitoring behavior of the animal for predicting the Tsunami by analyzing the sensory organs of animals which were able to monitor, and sense, stimuli preceding an earthquake.
Now a days Tsunami is occurring very frequently in all over the word. So it is essential to predict it very earlier before the arrival of Tsunami in order to save many lives. The earthquake can be predicted in three different terms: short- term, intermediate-term, and the long-term. The two major methods of prediction are Geophysical precursors and the unusual animal behavior. This paper focus on the unusual animal behavior by monitoring behavior of the animal for predicting the Tsunami by analyzing the sensory organs of animals which were able to monitor, and sense, stimuli preceding an earthquake.
Tsunami Detection System Using Unusual Animal Behavior- A Specified Approach
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130201.12
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
A. N. Meenakshi
B. I. Juvanna
Tsunami Detection System Using Unusual Animal Behavior- A Specified Approach
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http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130201.12
© Science Publishing Group
Zonal Jets in Rotating Shallow Water Turbulence
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130202.11
During the last three decades, the appearance of multiple zonal jets in planetary atmospheres and in the Earth’s oceans has widely studied. Evidences of this phenomenon were recovered in numerical simulations [1], laboratory experi-ments [2-4] and in field measurements of giant planets’ atmosphere [5]. Recent studies have revealed the presence of zonation also in the Earth’s oceans; in fact, zonal jets were recovered in the outputs of Oceanic General Circulation Models-GCMs [6] and from satellite altimetry observations [7]. In previous works [3-4], we have investigated the impact of several experimental parameters on jets organization both in decaying and forced regimes. This work shows new results in the context of continuously forced flows obtained performing experiments in a bigger domain. The experimental set-up consists of a rotating tank where the initial distribution of vorticity is generated via the Lorentz force in an electromagnetic cell and the latitudinal variation of the Coriolis parameter is simulated by the parabolic profile assumed by the free surface of the rotating fluid. The velocity fields were measured using an image analysis technique. The flow is characterized in terms of zonal and radial flow pattern, flow variability and jet scales.
During the last three decades, the appearance of multiple zonal jets in planetary atmospheres and in the Earth’s oceans has widely studied. Evidences of this phenomenon were recovered in numerical simulations [1], laboratory experi-ments [2-4] and in field measurements of giant planets’ atmosphere [5]. Recent studies have revealed the presence of zonation also in the Earth’s oceans; in fact, zonal jets were recovered in the outputs of Oceanic General Circulation Models-GCMs [6] and from satellite altimetry observations [7]. In previous works [3-4], we have investigated the impact of several experimental parameters on jets organization both in decaying and forced regimes. This work shows new results in the context of continuously forced flows obtained performing experiments in a bigger domain. The experimental set-up consists of a rotating tank where the initial distribution of vorticity is generated via the Lorentz force in an electromagnetic cell and the latitudinal variation of the Coriolis parameter is simulated by the parabolic profile assumed by the free surface of the rotating fluid. The velocity fields were measured using an image analysis technique. The flow is characterized in terms of zonal and radial flow pattern, flow variability and jet scales.
Zonal Jets in Rotating Shallow Water Turbulence
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130202.11
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
G. Di Nitto
S. Espa
A. Cenedese
Zonal Jets in Rotating Shallow Water Turbulence
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© Science Publishing Group
Influence of the Design on Slope Stability in Solid Waste Landfills
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130202.12
This paper presents, firstly, the influence of the geometry of a slope in the safety factor (SF). In order to do this, the SF is compared among three types of slopes: with berms every 7 m high and a dam at the toe, without berms and with a dam at the toe, and without berms nor dams. It was observed that, for the same inclination, the berms do not significantly influence the stability. However, the construction of an earth dam at the base increases safety, especially with little height and slope in waste with poor mechanical properties. On the other hand, a set of diagrams to learn, quickly and easily, the safety factor of a landfill slope has been developed. Thus, this set of diagrams allows calculations from the SF height (from 17 to 80 m) and slope inclination (from 45° to 14°) with values of effective cohesion of the waste (C'o) from 1 to 3 t/m2 and effective friction angle (') of 10° to 25°.
This paper presents, firstly, the influence of the geometry of a slope in the safety factor (SF). In order to do this, the SF is compared among three types of slopes: with berms every 7 m high and a dam at the toe, without berms and with a dam at the toe, and without berms nor dams. It was observed that, for the same inclination, the berms do not significantly influence the stability. However, the construction of an earth dam at the base increases safety, especially with little height and slope in waste with poor mechanical properties. On the other hand, a set of diagrams to learn, quickly and easily, the safety factor of a landfill slope has been developed. Thus, this set of diagrams allows calculations from the SF height (from 17 to 80 m) and slope inclination (from 45° to 14°) with values of effective cohesion of the waste (C'o) from 1 to 3 t/m2 and effective friction angle (') of 10° to 25°.
Influence of the Design on Slope Stability in Solid Waste Landfills
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130202.12
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Francisco J. Colomer-Mendoza
Joan Esteban-Altabella
Ferran García-Darás
Antonio Gallardo-Izquierdo
Influence of the Design on Slope Stability in Solid Waste Landfills
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2014-01-01
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© Science Publishing Group
Method for Determining the Potential Strain Energy Stored in the Earth before a Large Earthquake
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130202.14
This paper describes a technique for determining the potential energy of deformed material around a future earthquake rupture, with this energy being stored during the precursory period. The basic parameters are the following: rupture length on the Earth’s surface after the earthquake has occurred , rupture depth h, and the relative block movement along the rupture strike line . We compared the results for 44 large earthquakes with those derived by determining seismic wave energy from earthquake magnitude.
This paper describes a technique for determining the potential energy of deformed material around a future earthquake rupture, with this energy being stored during the precursory period. The basic parameters are the following: rupture length on the Earth’s surface after the earthquake has occurred , rupture depth h, and the relative block movement along the rupture strike line . We compared the results for 44 large earthquakes with those derived by determining seismic wave energy from earthquake magnitude.
Method for Determining the Potential Strain Energy Stored in the Earth before a Large Earthquake
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130202.14
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
E. E. Khachiyan
Method for Determining the Potential Strain Energy Stored in the Earth before a Large Earthquake
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© Science Publishing Group
Unsaturated Volcanic Tephra and Its Effect for Soil Movement in El Salvador
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130202.15
In El Salvador during the rainy season or when major earthquakes affect the area, processes like mass move-ments, liquefaction, erosion and floods affect the territory leaving environmental, social and economic damages. The vol-canic tephras called "Tierra Blanca Joven" (TBJ) which is a product of the last plinian eruption of the Ilopango Caldera are the more problematic region in the Metropolitan Area of San Salvador. In El Salvador during the summer and rainy season the groundwater level remains low in most of the areas, this means that the soils in the country are unsaturated and there are capillary forces that act on the soil structure making that an “apparent cohesion” (suction) improve the strength of the soil; this circumstance makes that the slopes are almost vertical and temporally stable, but will collapse when wetted or during seismic events. To that problematic is possible to add that the majority of the water pipelines are in bad condition and when they fail is possible to expect the collapse of entire streets or houses. Wetting of the soil is likely to occur following construction development, because evaporation is reduced by covering the ground surface with a structure. For unsaturated soils the use of two independent stress variables: net stress and suction are needed. Suction values of TBJ “G” unit of the proximal facie were obtained using pressure plate, tensiometer and filter paper to obtain a Soil-Water Retention Curve (SWRC); the use of this curve into finite elements software can help to obtain the shear strength and permeability properties. For monitoring, the use of Quickdraw tensiometers (suction) and TMS3 (soil moisture content) is proposed, because it could be a way to build a field methodology for early warning system for the slopes for urban planning and risk assessment.
In El Salvador during the rainy season or when major earthquakes affect the area, processes like mass move-ments, liquefaction, erosion and floods affect the territory leaving environmental, social and economic damages. The vol-canic tephras called "Tierra Blanca Joven" (TBJ) which is a product of the last plinian eruption of the Ilopango Caldera are the more problematic region in the Metropolitan Area of San Salvador. In El Salvador during the summer and rainy season the groundwater level remains low in most of the areas, this means that the soils in the country are unsaturated and there are capillary forces that act on the soil structure making that an “apparent cohesion” (suction) improve the strength of the soil; this circumstance makes that the slopes are almost vertical and temporally stable, but will collapse when wetted or during seismic events. To that problematic is possible to add that the majority of the water pipelines are in bad condition and when they fail is possible to expect the collapse of entire streets or houses. Wetting of the soil is likely to occur following construction development, because evaporation is reduced by covering the ground surface with a structure. For unsaturated soils the use of two independent stress variables: net stress and suction are needed. Suction values of TBJ “G” unit of the proximal facie were obtained using pressure plate, tensiometer and filter paper to obtain a Soil-Water Retention Curve (SWRC); the use of this curve into finite elements software can help to obtain the shear strength and permeability properties. For monitoring, the use of Quickdraw tensiometers (suction) and TMS3 (soil moisture content) is proposed, because it could be a way to build a field methodology for early warning system for the slopes for urban planning and risk assessment.
Unsaturated Volcanic Tephra and Its Effect for Soil Movement in El Salvador
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130202.15
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
José Alexander Chávez Hernández
José Alexander Chávez Hernández
Jiři Šebesta
Lubomir Kopecky
Reynaldo López Landaverde
José Landaverde
Unsaturated Volcanic Tephra and Its Effect for Soil Movement in El Salvador
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© Science Publishing Group
Recycling of Solid Waste Material In Hong Kong: I. Properties of Modified Clay Mineral Waste Material and its Application for Removal of Cadmium In Water
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130202.13
Large quantities of solid waste are disposed to landfill sites in Hong Kong each year and these landfill sites will be filled within five years. Recycling of solid waste material has become a very urgent task and evaluation of its application in environmental remediation has been functioned recently. Mineral-containing waste material, which is one of the common solid waste components to be disposed to landfill sites in Hong Kong, was used to produce the modified clay mineral waste material (MCMWM) for removal of cadmium (Cd) in water. The physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of MCMWM related to Cd adsorption were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), BET specific surface area (SSA) and pore size distribution (PSD) measurements, and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). The particle size of MCMWM ranged from less than a few to tens of micrometers, and the particles had rough surface and structural defects. Specific surface area was 5.6 m2/g, with different types of external and internal pores being observed. The minerals in MCMWM were mainly 2:1 clay minerals. Smectite, illite, chlorite, feldspars, quartz, and calcium hydroxide were detected. Heavy metals including arsenic, cadmium, chromium, mercury and lead detected in MCMWM were much lower than the maximum allowed level for each kind of heavy metal based on the Dutch Standard that has been used worldwide. Cadmium adsorption by MCMWM was very rapid in solid/liquid interface as up to 90% of Cd2+ can be adsorbed within half hour of reaction. The amount of Cd2+ adsorbed increased but the rate of adsorption decreased with increasing concentration of Cd2+ in solution. The Cd2+ adsorption was related to the surface structure and chemistry, including SSA, PSD, surface defect, charge and bonding in MCMWM.
Large quantities of solid waste are disposed to landfill sites in Hong Kong each year and these landfill sites will be filled within five years. Recycling of solid waste material has become a very urgent task and evaluation of its application in environmental remediation has been functioned recently. Mineral-containing waste material, which is one of the common solid waste components to be disposed to landfill sites in Hong Kong, was used to produce the modified clay mineral waste material (MCMWM) for removal of cadmium (Cd) in water. The physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of MCMWM related to Cd adsorption were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), BET specific surface area (SSA) and pore size distribution (PSD) measurements, and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). The particle size of MCMWM ranged from less than a few to tens of micrometers, and the particles had rough surface and structural defects. Specific surface area was 5.6 m2/g, with different types of external and internal pores being observed. The minerals in MCMWM were mainly 2:1 clay minerals. Smectite, illite, chlorite, feldspars, quartz, and calcium hydroxide were detected. Heavy metals including arsenic, cadmium, chromium, mercury and lead detected in MCMWM were much lower than the maximum allowed level for each kind of heavy metal based on the Dutch Standard that has been used worldwide. Cadmium adsorption by MCMWM was very rapid in solid/liquid interface as up to 90% of Cd2+ can be adsorbed within half hour of reaction. The amount of Cd2+ adsorbed increased but the rate of adsorption decreased with increasing concentration of Cd2+ in solution. The Cd2+ adsorption was related to the surface structure and chemistry, including SSA, PSD, surface defect, charge and bonding in MCMWM.
Recycling of Solid Waste Material In Hong Kong: I. Properties of Modified Clay Mineral Waste Material and its Application for Removal of Cadmium In Water
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130202.13
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Y. N. Jiang
H. D. Ruan
S. Y. Lai
C. H. Lee
C. F. Yu
Z. Wu
X. Chen
S. He
Recycling of Solid Waste Material In Hong Kong: I. Properties of Modified Clay Mineral Waste Material and its Application for Removal of Cadmium In Water
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© Science Publishing Group
Seismic Slope Stability of the Tipaimukh Dam of North-Eastern India: A Numerical Modelling Approach
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130203.12
This article represents the seismic slope stability analysis of earth core rock-fill Tipaimukh Dam under static and dynamic loading conditions. The Tipaimukh area is located at the triple junction of the three continental plates- Indian, Eurasian and Burmese tectonic plate. The area is frequently interrupted by unanticipated geological discontinuities, such as regional and local-scale faults and fractures that behave as a strike-slip and extensional movements. Two kinds of numerical models (A and B) are presented here. Both models consist of five zones and each zone has individual rock mechanical characteristics. Model A assumes safety factor of dam slope associated with impervious core including clay material. Model B assumes also safety factor associated with masonry wall as an impervious core. The present numerical modeling results reveal that under static condition of the dam the safety factor ranges from 2.56 to 2.69. On the contrary, under seismic/dynamic loading conditions associated with earthquake M6.0 to M8.5, the safety factor ranges from 1.60 to 0.98 for model A, and from 1.66 to 0.98 for model B. The past records of the historical earthquakes in north-eastern India reveal that the recurrence period of intensive magnitude earthquakes, as experienced in Assam, Shillong plateau and Manipur area, is 38 to 53 years. The calculated safety factor of the Tipaimukh Dam implies that the dam would be destroyed if it would be affected by earthquakes magnitude over 7.0 throughout its operational life, which is usually extent from 50 to 100 years.
This article represents the seismic slope stability analysis of earth core rock-fill Tipaimukh Dam under static and dynamic loading conditions. The Tipaimukh area is located at the triple junction of the three continental plates- Indian, Eurasian and Burmese tectonic plate. The area is frequently interrupted by unanticipated geological discontinuities, such as regional and local-scale faults and fractures that behave as a strike-slip and extensional movements. Two kinds of numerical models (A and B) are presented here. Both models consist of five zones and each zone has individual rock mechanical characteristics. Model A assumes safety factor of dam slope associated with impervious core including clay material. Model B assumes also safety factor associated with masonry wall as an impervious core. The present numerical modeling results reveal that under static condition of the dam the safety factor ranges from 2.56 to 2.69. On the contrary, under seismic/dynamic loading conditions associated with earthquake M6.0 to M8.5, the safety factor ranges from 1.60 to 0.98 for model A, and from 1.66 to 0.98 for model B. The past records of the historical earthquakes in north-eastern India reveal that the recurrence period of intensive magnitude earthquakes, as experienced in Assam, Shillong plateau and Manipur area, is 38 to 53 years. The calculated safety factor of the Tipaimukh Dam implies that the dam would be destroyed if it would be affected by earthquakes magnitude over 7.0 throughout its operational life, which is usually extent from 50 to 100 years.
Seismic Slope Stability of the Tipaimukh Dam of North-Eastern India: A Numerical Modelling Approach
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130203.12
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Md. Rafiqul Islam
Mohammed Omar Faruque
Seismic Slope Stability of the Tipaimukh Dam of North-Eastern India: A Numerical Modelling Approach
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© Science Publishing Group
Suitability of Bentonite Clay: An Analytical Approach
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130203.13
Bentonite is a type of clay with a very high proportion of clay mineral montmorillonite, resulting from the decomposition of volcanic ash. With high plasticity, Bentonite is highly water absorbent and has high shrinkage and swelling characteristics. Bentonite slurry is often used to solve problems in the construction of borings or excavating trenches in water- saturated soils. Over time, the uses of bentonite spread into more current applications including papermaking tech-nology, cut-off walls, wastewater purification and even into different aspects of nano-technology because of nano-sizes of bentonite particles. Due to its vast engineering applications, it is of highly research interest. In this present study, an analyt-ical approach has been made to find a suitable bentonite sample from three different types of bentonite samples (China, Pakistan and India) by analyzing their engineering properties and economy as well. Finally, China Bentonite sample is found to be most suitable with good engineering properties and economy than other samples.
Bentonite is a type of clay with a very high proportion of clay mineral montmorillonite, resulting from the decomposition of volcanic ash. With high plasticity, Bentonite is highly water absorbent and has high shrinkage and swelling characteristics. Bentonite slurry is often used to solve problems in the construction of borings or excavating trenches in water- saturated soils. Over time, the uses of bentonite spread into more current applications including papermaking tech-nology, cut-off walls, wastewater purification and even into different aspects of nano-technology because of nano-sizes of bentonite particles. Due to its vast engineering applications, it is of highly research interest. In this present study, an analyt-ical approach has been made to find a suitable bentonite sample from three different types of bentonite samples (China, Pakistan and India) by analyzing their engineering properties and economy as well. Finally, China Bentonite sample is found to be most suitable with good engineering properties and economy than other samples.
Suitability of Bentonite Clay: An Analytical Approach
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130203.13
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Md. Abdullah Asad
Shantanu Kar
Mohammad Ahmeduzzaman
Md. Raquibul Hassan
Suitability of Bentonite Clay: An Analytical Approach
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http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130203.13
© Science Publishing Group
Trace Elements and Health: An Environmental Risk in Nigeria
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130203.11
The concentration levels of trace elements in drinking water and food pose potential health risks to man and therefore require great attention. Studies on iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) indicate goiter prevalence in areas underlain by metamorphic Basement and Younger Granite rocks and its near absence in the sedimentary terrains. There are cases of dental fluorosis resulting from the excessive ingestion of fluoride in both children and adults living in both the crystalline and sedimentary terrains in Nigeria with none reported from the coastal areas. Mining/mineral processing predisposes these trace elements to weathering whereby they are released into the environment in the soil and water bodies. The incidence of abnormally high natural radiation (radon gas) associated with most rocks and the exceptionally higher natural radiation associated with cassiterite mill tailings of the Jos Plateau, north central Nigeria, is a source of worry. Epidemiological records have indicated the increasing rate of lung cancer prevalence on the Jos Plateau and studies carried out elsewhere in Europe have linked about 13% of deaths associated with lung cancer to exposure to natural radiation. Preliminary hydro-geochemical study indicates high concentrations of potentially harmful elements (PHE) (Pb, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Hg, V, Co, Cr, Ni, etc.) in the soils and water bodies in the crystalline and inland sedimentary terrains especially close to sulfide mineralization. In addition, high levels of these elements from anthropogenic sources have also been reported in soils and water in most mining/mineral processing sites and urban centres. The knowledge of the relationships between trace elements and human health issues is at its infancy in Nigeria. To adequately understand these relationships, there is need for geoscientists to intensify research on trace elements in the environment and together with professionals in community health so as to identify health issues arising from trace elements in the environment.
The concentration levels of trace elements in drinking water and food pose potential health risks to man and therefore require great attention. Studies on iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) indicate goiter prevalence in areas underlain by metamorphic Basement and Younger Granite rocks and its near absence in the sedimentary terrains. There are cases of dental fluorosis resulting from the excessive ingestion of fluoride in both children and adults living in both the crystalline and sedimentary terrains in Nigeria with none reported from the coastal areas. Mining/mineral processing predisposes these trace elements to weathering whereby they are released into the environment in the soil and water bodies. The incidence of abnormally high natural radiation (radon gas) associated with most rocks and the exceptionally higher natural radiation associated with cassiterite mill tailings of the Jos Plateau, north central Nigeria, is a source of worry. Epidemiological records have indicated the increasing rate of lung cancer prevalence on the Jos Plateau and studies carried out elsewhere in Europe have linked about 13% of deaths associated with lung cancer to exposure to natural radiation. Preliminary hydro-geochemical study indicates high concentrations of potentially harmful elements (PHE) (Pb, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Hg, V, Co, Cr, Ni, etc.) in the soils and water bodies in the crystalline and inland sedimentary terrains especially close to sulfide mineralization. In addition, high levels of these elements from anthropogenic sources have also been reported in soils and water in most mining/mineral processing sites and urban centres. The knowledge of the relationships between trace elements and human health issues is at its infancy in Nigeria. To adequately understand these relationships, there is need for geoscientists to intensify research on trace elements in the environment and together with professionals in community health so as to identify health issues arising from trace elements in the environment.
Trace Elements and Health: An Environmental Risk in Nigeria
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130203.11
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Lar, Uriah Alexander
Trace Elements and Health: An Environmental Risk in Nigeria
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http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130203.11
© Science Publishing Group
Petrologic and Structural Features of Basement Rocks of Parts of Mukuru Area, Southeastern Nigeria
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130204.11
Field investigations in the western part of Mukuru area indicate intense structural imprints and high HT/HP metamorphism, and some magmatism. The rock units in the area include migmatitic gneisses, granulites, amphibolites, schists, charnockites, epidiorites and granites. The charnockites which are common in the shear zone and boundary areas appear to mark the end of magmatism. However, relicts of magmatic rocks mapped at Ubong Community in the study area suggest earlier magmatism. The metamorphic rocks are strongly deformed in a N-S to NE-SW direction with ghost structures, pinch and swell structures, ptygmatic veins, showing evidence of extensional tectonics. No visible contact relationship between the migmatitic gneisses and schists was observed. Diagnostic metamorphic structures like fine banding/layering of alternating dark- and light-coloured layers are conspicuous in gneisses and some amphibolites while schistosity and deep weathering are present in schists. The geodynamic features prevalent in Mukuru area are deformation and metamorphism. They indicate a possible petrogenetic link to southern Obudu Plateau in the north, western Cameroon in the east than Bansara in the west.
Field investigations in the western part of Mukuru area indicate intense structural imprints and high HT/HP metamorphism, and some magmatism. The rock units in the area include migmatitic gneisses, granulites, amphibolites, schists, charnockites, epidiorites and granites. The charnockites which are common in the shear zone and boundary areas appear to mark the end of magmatism. However, relicts of magmatic rocks mapped at Ubong Community in the study area suggest earlier magmatism. The metamorphic rocks are strongly deformed in a N-S to NE-SW direction with ghost structures, pinch and swell structures, ptygmatic veins, showing evidence of extensional tectonics. No visible contact relationship between the migmatitic gneisses and schists was observed. Diagnostic metamorphic structures like fine banding/layering of alternating dark- and light-coloured layers are conspicuous in gneisses and some amphibolites while schistosity and deep weathering are present in schists. The geodynamic features prevalent in Mukuru area are deformation and metamorphism. They indicate a possible petrogenetic link to southern Obudu Plateau in the north, western Cameroon in the east than Bansara in the west.
Petrologic and Structural Features of Basement Rocks of Parts of Mukuru Area, Southeastern Nigeria
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130204.11
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Ndukauba Egesi
Victor U. Ukaegbu
Petrologic and Structural Features of Basement Rocks of Parts of Mukuru Area, Southeastern Nigeria
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© Science Publishing Group
Investigating the Structures within the Lower Benue and Upper Anambra Basins, Nigeria, Using First Vertical Derivative, Analytical Signal and (CET) Centre for Exploration Targeting Plug-In
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130205.11
The IGRF-corrected 2009 aeromagnetic data over the Lower Benue and Upper Anambra basins Nigeria was subjected to both Vertical and Horizontal Derivatives, Analytical Signal and CET grid analysis, these digital processing tools were achieved both on map and profile analysis. From the analysis of both the Vertical and Horizontal Derivatives the study area could be divided into two regions based on the degree of distortion to the magnetic signatures the Northern and the Western edge of the area is covered by short wavelength magnetic anomalous signatures that are the characteristic of outcrop and shallow intrusive magnetic bodies, while the remaining part of the study area is characterized by medium to long wavelength magnetic signatures that are attributes of deep sited magnetic rocks in areas of medium to thick sedimentations. Result of the Analytical Signal which is in local amplitude reveals regions with outcrop of magnetic rocks having amplitudes ranging from 0.230 to 0.40 (shown as pink color), area with magnetic rock intruding into sedimentary formations at shallow depths, with amplitudes ranging from 0.094 to 0.229 cycles (shown as red color), while regions with magnetic rock intruding into sedimentary formations at greater depths, having very low amplitudes ranging from -0.085 to 0.055 cycles (shown in yellow to green color). Analyses due to CET grid analysis equally reveal the basement rocks to the North and Southern edge of the study area. Intrusions into the sedimentary formation are also revealed. The research discovered that the lower (southern) part of the area (on Angba and Otukpo area) shows structures (Basaltic rocks) that intrude into the basement which could have predate the sedimentation period, several fracture and fault lines are detected on the CET map, most prominent among them is that at the Southeastern corner of the area which trends NE-SW which can be attributed to an onshore extension of Charcots fault zone , and that which trends N-S is a fault line that controls the course of River Niger. These three features are responsible for the depressions where sediments can accumulate.
The IGRF-corrected 2009 aeromagnetic data over the Lower Benue and Upper Anambra basins Nigeria was subjected to both Vertical and Horizontal Derivatives, Analytical Signal and CET grid analysis, these digital processing tools were achieved both on map and profile analysis. From the analysis of both the Vertical and Horizontal Derivatives the study area could be divided into two regions based on the degree of distortion to the magnetic signatures the Northern and the Western edge of the area is covered by short wavelength magnetic anomalous signatures that are the characteristic of outcrop and shallow intrusive magnetic bodies, while the remaining part of the study area is characterized by medium to long wavelength magnetic signatures that are attributes of deep sited magnetic rocks in areas of medium to thick sedimentations. Result of the Analytical Signal which is in local amplitude reveals regions with outcrop of magnetic rocks having amplitudes ranging from 0.230 to 0.40 (shown as pink color), area with magnetic rock intruding into sedimentary formations at shallow depths, with amplitudes ranging from 0.094 to 0.229 cycles (shown as red color), while regions with magnetic rock intruding into sedimentary formations at greater depths, having very low amplitudes ranging from -0.085 to 0.055 cycles (shown in yellow to green color). Analyses due to CET grid analysis equally reveal the basement rocks to the North and Southern edge of the study area. Intrusions into the sedimentary formation are also revealed. The research discovered that the lower (southern) part of the area (on Angba and Otukpo area) shows structures (Basaltic rocks) that intrude into the basement which could have predate the sedimentation period, several fracture and fault lines are detected on the CET map, most prominent among them is that at the Southeastern corner of the area which trends NE-SW which can be attributed to an onshore extension of Charcots fault zone , and that which trends N-S is a fault line that controls the course of River Niger. These three features are responsible for the depressions where sediments can accumulate.
Investigating the Structures within the Lower Benue and Upper Anambra Basins, Nigeria, Using First Vertical Derivative, Analytical Signal and (CET) Centre for Exploration Targeting Plug-In
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130205.11
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
ADETONA, A. ABBASS
ABU MALLAM
Investigating the Structures within the Lower Benue and Upper Anambra Basins, Nigeria, Using First Vertical Derivative, Analytical Signal and (CET) Centre for Exploration Targeting Plug-In
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© Science Publishing Group
Volumetric Estimation of Coal Resources in Seam VI for Require Backfill Materials of Barapukuria Coal Mine, Dinajpur, Bangladesh
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130206.11
Through the distinguish software application along with formal calculation method the study represents a volumetric estimation of require backfill Materials of Barapukuria coal mine in north western Bangladesh, the only coal mine of the country under production, which capable of a low recovery with sustaining mining method. The only productive coal seam of the mine, Seam VI is our main focus during the assessment. Different estimation method is applied to investigate the accuracy of calculation and find out the reasons beyond the deflections. Surfer 8.4 exploits two method of interpolation, inverse distance to power, a weighted average interpolator and Kriging, more flexible gridding method, those yields the volume of 169221180.5 cubic meters and 165323770.4 cubic meters respectively. On the contrary Rockworks is estimated the volume through Delaunay Triangulation method as 115,959,398.4 cubic meters whether another estimation which is made by inverse power weighting interpolation on saved stratigraphic model, gives 174,281,203 cubic meters volume, following 185,760,000 cubic meters through geological reserve calculation. After considering the interpolation approach, available data and previous study agreement, the result of inverse distance to power, at both of software’s is consider for backfill materials volume estimation. The required volume of backfill materials is 101532708.3 m3 and for 9% and 10% recovery that’s are 9137943.747 m3 and 10153270.83 m3 respectively. The daily requirement of backfill is 562 - 636 m3 and the system need to have a daily capacity of 702 – 795 m3.
Through the distinguish software application along with formal calculation method the study represents a volumetric estimation of require backfill Materials of Barapukuria coal mine in north western Bangladesh, the only coal mine of the country under production, which capable of a low recovery with sustaining mining method. The only productive coal seam of the mine, Seam VI is our main focus during the assessment. Different estimation method is applied to investigate the accuracy of calculation and find out the reasons beyond the deflections. Surfer 8.4 exploits two method of interpolation, inverse distance to power, a weighted average interpolator and Kriging, more flexible gridding method, those yields the volume of 169221180.5 cubic meters and 165323770.4 cubic meters respectively. On the contrary Rockworks is estimated the volume through Delaunay Triangulation method as 115,959,398.4 cubic meters whether another estimation which is made by inverse power weighting interpolation on saved stratigraphic model, gives 174,281,203 cubic meters volume, following 185,760,000 cubic meters through geological reserve calculation. After considering the interpolation approach, available data and previous study agreement, the result of inverse distance to power, at both of software’s is consider for backfill materials volume estimation. The required volume of backfill materials is 101532708.3 m3 and for 9% and 10% recovery that’s are 9137943.747 m3 and 10153270.83 m3 respectively. The daily requirement of backfill is 562 - 636 m3 and the system need to have a daily capacity of 702 – 795 m3.
Volumetric Estimation of Coal Resources in Seam VI for Require Backfill Materials of Barapukuria Coal Mine, Dinajpur, Bangladesh
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130206.11
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Md. Mostafijul Karim
M. Farhad Howladar
Volumetric Estimation of Coal Resources in Seam VI for Require Backfill Materials of Barapukuria Coal Mine, Dinajpur, Bangladesh
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2014-01-01
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© Science Publishing Group
Optimization of the Overall Equipment Efficiency (OEE) of Loaders and Rigid Frame Trucks in NAMDEB Southern Coastal Mine Stripping Fleet, Namibia
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130206.17
This research work investigates optimization of the overall equipment efficiency (OEE) of loaders and rigid frame trucks in Southern Coastal Mine Stripping fleet of Namibia. The objectives of the research were achieved through direct observation and recording in a natural setting. The collected data were duration of various cycle loss times components, loader and truck cycle times. The primary source of data is a time motion study conducted over day shifts. The secondary source is existing data from the mine. The collected data were recorded in print and transferred to corresponding digital spread sheet format in the Microsoft Excel® package for more efficient calculation and analysis. The results of the analyses revealed that OEE estimated for truck operation is 63.12% while that of loader is 24.4%. The estimated availability for truck by OEE is 60.67% while that of loader is 43.30% against the bench mark of 90%, the estimated performance for truck by OEE is 94.58% while that of loader is 59.94% against the bench mark of 90% and the estimated quality for truck by OEE is 110% while that of loader is 94% against the bench mark of 95%. From an availability perspective, queuing and bunching of trucks should be minimized.
This research work investigates optimization of the overall equipment efficiency (OEE) of loaders and rigid frame trucks in Southern Coastal Mine Stripping fleet of Namibia. The objectives of the research were achieved through direct observation and recording in a natural setting. The collected data were duration of various cycle loss times components, loader and truck cycle times. The primary source of data is a time motion study conducted over day shifts. The secondary source is existing data from the mine. The collected data were recorded in print and transferred to corresponding digital spread sheet format in the Microsoft Excel® package for more efficient calculation and analysis. The results of the analyses revealed that OEE estimated for truck operation is 63.12% while that of loader is 24.4%. The estimated availability for truck by OEE is 60.67% while that of loader is 43.30% against the bench mark of 90%, the estimated performance for truck by OEE is 94.58% while that of loader is 59.94% against the bench mark of 90% and the estimated quality for truck by OEE is 110% while that of loader is 94% against the bench mark of 95%. From an availability perspective, queuing and bunching of trucks should be minimized.
Optimization of the Overall Equipment Efficiency (OEE) of Loaders and Rigid Frame Trucks in NAMDEB Southern Coastal Mine Stripping Fleet, Namibia
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130206.17
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Akande, Jide Muili
Lawal, Abiodun Ismail
Aladejare, Adeyemi Emman
Optimization of the Overall Equipment Efficiency (OEE) of Loaders and Rigid Frame Trucks in NAMDEB Southern Coastal Mine Stripping Fleet, Namibia
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2014-01-01
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© Science Publishing Group
Prospect of Potential Nickel Added Value Development in Indonesia
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130206.13
The effort of increasing mineral added value as a whole both vertical and regional is necessary required to improve the national income and regional development. The added value of nickel could be improved through developing the downstream industry such as stainless steel, non-ferrous alloys, other steel alloys, electroplating and chemicals, besides also its regional added value. The purpose of the study is to clarify the beneficial of nickel added value development for the wealth of the people of Indonesia through the improvement of the nickel sector economic added value which is beneficial for the national economic growth and the enlargement of the regional added value which is mainly beneficial for the welfare of the local people who live within the surroundings of the mine site. In fact, the development of both nickel added values have been carried out by the mining companies, even though it needs encouragement and enlargement within the coming years to increase its role to the economic development nationally as well as regionally or locally.
The effort of increasing mineral added value as a whole both vertical and regional is necessary required to improve the national income and regional development. The added value of nickel could be improved through developing the downstream industry such as stainless steel, non-ferrous alloys, other steel alloys, electroplating and chemicals, besides also its regional added value. The purpose of the study is to clarify the beneficial of nickel added value development for the wealth of the people of Indonesia through the improvement of the nickel sector economic added value which is beneficial for the national economic growth and the enlargement of the regional added value which is mainly beneficial for the welfare of the local people who live within the surroundings of the mine site. In fact, the development of both nickel added values have been carried out by the mining companies, even though it needs encouragement and enlargement within the coming years to increase its role to the economic development nationally as well as regionally or locally.
Prospect of Potential Nickel Added Value Development in Indonesia
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130206.13
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Ukar Wijaya Soelistijo
Prospect of Potential Nickel Added Value Development in Indonesia
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2014-01-01
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http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130206.13
© Science Publishing Group
Economic Evaluation of the Existing and Potential Indonesian Coal Utilization
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130206.12
The whole efforts of the Indonesian Government in diversifying the available domestic coal reserves in the forms of solid, liquid (synthetic oil) and gaseous fuel is made possible to overcome the depleted domestic oil reserves. Within the coming few years Indonesia will become net oil consumer after as the net oil importer in 2003. Within the current forty years Indonesian energy consumption was heavily depending on oil fuel. To meet the increasing domestic energy demand, the large quantity of domestic coal reserves should be diversified into briquette, synthetic oil and synthetic gas, and also as other non-fuel or chemical products. All these diversified products are expected to be competitive economically as well as environmental friendly by using clean coal technology. This article is as result of evaluation of the existing commercial scale utilization and the research results compilation of the Indonesian coal utilization and diversification within the last 15 years.
The whole efforts of the Indonesian Government in diversifying the available domestic coal reserves in the forms of solid, liquid (synthetic oil) and gaseous fuel is made possible to overcome the depleted domestic oil reserves. Within the coming few years Indonesia will become net oil consumer after as the net oil importer in 2003. Within the current forty years Indonesian energy consumption was heavily depending on oil fuel. To meet the increasing domestic energy demand, the large quantity of domestic coal reserves should be diversified into briquette, synthetic oil and synthetic gas, and also as other non-fuel or chemical products. All these diversified products are expected to be competitive economically as well as environmental friendly by using clean coal technology. This article is as result of evaluation of the existing commercial scale utilization and the research results compilation of the Indonesian coal utilization and diversification within the last 15 years.
Economic Evaluation of the Existing and Potential Indonesian Coal Utilization
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130206.12
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Ukar Wijaya Soelistijo
Economic Evaluation of the Existing and Potential Indonesian Coal Utilization
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2014-01-01
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http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130206.12
© Science Publishing Group
Overview of Arsenic Distribution in some Part of Biu Volcanic Province North-Eastern Nigeria
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130206.15
Overexposure to arsenic can cause various diseases such as cancer of (skin, lung, bladder, and kidney), hair loss and nails deformity. These diseases are common among adults, youth and children in some rural communities in Biu Volcanic Province North-Eastern Nigeria. This is what motivated the Authors to investigate the concentration of arsenic in surface and ground waters of Biu volcanic environment, northern eastern Nigeria and to delineate areas of high risk to arsenic exposure. Thirty seven water samples; thirteen surface water samples and twenty four ground water samples were analyzed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) at Geochemistry Laboratory, University of Jos, Nigeria. Arsenic concentrations range from 0.03 to 0.477 mg/L in the surface water and 0.006 to 0.424 mg/L in the ground water. This study indicates that people in Yimirshika Village might be at a considerable risk of arsenic poisoning.
Overexposure to arsenic can cause various diseases such as cancer of (skin, lung, bladder, and kidney), hair loss and nails deformity. These diseases are common among adults, youth and children in some rural communities in Biu Volcanic Province North-Eastern Nigeria. This is what motivated the Authors to investigate the concentration of arsenic in surface and ground waters of Biu volcanic environment, northern eastern Nigeria and to delineate areas of high risk to arsenic exposure. Thirty seven water samples; thirteen surface water samples and twenty four ground water samples were analyzed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) at Geochemistry Laboratory, University of Jos, Nigeria. Arsenic concentrations range from 0.03 to 0.477 mg/L in the surface water and 0.006 to 0.424 mg/L in the ground water. This study indicates that people in Yimirshika Village might be at a considerable risk of arsenic poisoning.
Overview of Arsenic Distribution in some Part of Biu Volcanic Province North-Eastern Nigeria
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130206.15
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Usman, Adamu Mohammed
Lar, Uriah Alexander
Overview of Arsenic Distribution in some Part of Biu Volcanic Province North-Eastern Nigeria
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2014-01-01
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http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130206.15
© Science Publishing Group
The Potential Share of Coal Liquefaction in the Indonesian Economy in 2025
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20130206.16
One of the objectives of the National Energy Policy (KEN) of Indonesiawhich is listed in Perpres (Presidential Regulation) number 5/2006 is the realization ofan optimal energy mix in 2025 by lowering oil consumption to 20% and increased utilization of coal to greater than 33%. KEN also mandates that more than 2% of national energy needs is derived from coal liquefaction process. This research aim is to analyze atthe economic impact and linkages among sectors using Indonesian 2005 Input-Output Table which will be projected to 2025 by entering low-rank coal synthetic oil (CSO) sector as a new classification. Econometric models (regression analysis) and linear programming are applied in this research. The result of economic calculation of investation in CSO plants indicates that on the coal price assumption of US\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\$60/ton, synthetic coal oil price of US\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\$111/bbl, and the interest rate (i) 5%, in general will give the Internal Rate of Return (IRR) is less than 10%. Analysis of backward linkages shows that the CSO sector will have a potential increasing a new output for the economy higher than the other energy sectors, but lower rate of forward linkage (downstream). Meanwhile, the multiplier effect indicates that the development of CSO plant is capable of moving national economy sectors equivalent to the petroleum refining sector and other energy provider sectors.The lower surplus multiplier shows that the investment in the CSO sector will be attractive if the government gives incentives on the enterprise, things such as regulation and investing financial support, tax incentives/tax holiday, price subsidies, and the coal prices scheme arrangements.
One of the objectives of the National Energy Policy (KEN) of Indonesiawhich is listed in Perpres (Presidential Regulation) number 5/2006 is the realization ofan optimal energy mix in 2025 by lowering oil consumption to 20% and increased utilization of coal to greater than 33%. KEN also mandates that more than 2% of national energy needs is derived from coal liquefaction process. This research aim is to analyze atthe economic impact and linkages among sectors using Indonesian 2005 Input-Output Table which will be projected to 2025 by entering low-rank coal synthetic oil (CSO) sector as a new classification. Econometric models (regression analysis) and linear programming are applied in this research. The result of economic calculation of investation in CSO plants indicates that on the coal price assumption of US\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\$60/ton, synthetic coal oil price of US\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\$111/bbl, and the interest rate (i) 5%, in general will give the Internal Rate of Return (IRR) is less than 10%. Analysis of backward linkages shows that the CSO sector will have a potential increasing a new output for the economy higher than the other energy sectors, but lower rate of forward linkage (downstream). Meanwhile, the multiplier effect indicates that the development of CSO plant is capable of moving national economy sectors equivalent to the petroleum refining sector and other energy provider sectors.The lower surplus multiplier shows that the investment in the CSO sector will be attractive if the government gives incentives on the enterprise, things such as regulation and investing financial support, tax incentives/tax holiday, price subsidies, and the coal prices scheme arrangements.
The Potential Share of Coal Liquefaction in the Indonesian Economy in 2025
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20130206.16
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Ukar Wijaya Soelistijo
Aryo Prawoto Wibowo
Makmun Abdullah
The Potential Share of Coal Liquefaction in the Indonesian Economy in 2025
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2014-01-01
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© Science Publishing Group
Porosity Measurements for Some Basalt Rocks from the Gharyan Volcanic Province NW Libya
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140301.14
In this paper, Porosity and density measurements at atmospheric temperature and pressure were conducted on three basalt rock samples from Gharyan Volcanic Province (GVP) NW Libya. The properties examined for the basalts are: bulk and grain density and porosity. The properties found in the basalts are: the mean bulk density 2.823 grams/cm3 and the mean grain density 2.960 grams/cm3 and porosity range 1.311-7.809 %. To consider the possibility of using basalt rocks as a biological shielding against gamma-ray radiation, mass attenuation coefficients for basalt samples were calculated. Results indicate that the basalt rocks are more efficient against gamma-ray radiation than traditional lead materials. Some applications of basalt rocks in industries were suggested.
In this paper, Porosity and density measurements at atmospheric temperature and pressure were conducted on three basalt rock samples from Gharyan Volcanic Province (GVP) NW Libya. The properties examined for the basalts are: bulk and grain density and porosity. The properties found in the basalts are: the mean bulk density 2.823 grams/cm3 and the mean grain density 2.960 grams/cm3 and porosity range 1.311-7.809 %. To consider the possibility of using basalt rocks as a biological shielding against gamma-ray radiation, mass attenuation coefficients for basalt samples were calculated. Results indicate that the basalt rocks are more efficient against gamma-ray radiation than traditional lead materials. Some applications of basalt rocks in industries were suggested.
Porosity Measurements for Some Basalt Rocks from the Gharyan Volcanic Province NW Libya
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140301.14
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Samir Ahmed Hamouda
Mohamed B. Abdelmalik
Essam Abdel-Qader al-Talhi
Porosity Measurements for Some Basalt Rocks from the Gharyan Volcanic Province NW Libya
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2014-01-01
2014-01-01
10.11648/j.earth.20140301.14
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140301.14
© Science Publishing Group
Unusual Animal Behaviour before Earthquakes and Multiple Parameter Monitoring in Western Piedmont
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140301.13
The complex synergy of various non-seismic precursor phenomena renders difficult to specify what are the chemical and physical parameters, whose variations give more problems to the animal and plant kingdoms. Local seismic events are generally seldom announced by anomalous animal behaviours. Unfortunately we do not understand animal languages or their meaningful vocal modulations. Moreover, many animal alarms are not acknowledged. A number of animal and human observations in Northern Italy are reported, which can suggests physical observations potentially connected with seismic events. The study of seismic precursors is still in its infancy, the error margin on temporal and spatial forecast is still large and must be evaluated. Being so, a multiple parameter physical monitoring started recently in Western Piedmont, which is useful to propose the study of seismic precursors possibly linked to animal behaviour. Electric and magnetic detectors were operating together with alpha particle and acoustic detectors, while a collection of anomalous biological and meteorological observations were taken. Variations in the recent years of the magnetic declination revealed to be a good candidate to precursor, related to the direction of compression, traction and stretching on rocks, even if the geographic localization of future earthquakes is still impossible. In case of some local unusual animal behaviours it can suggest the occurrence of a local seismic event with epicentre distance ≤ 100 km. Statistical information on warnings from local dogs and cats are given.
The complex synergy of various non-seismic precursor phenomena renders difficult to specify what are the chemical and physical parameters, whose variations give more problems to the animal and plant kingdoms. Local seismic events are generally seldom announced by anomalous animal behaviours. Unfortunately we do not understand animal languages or their meaningful vocal modulations. Moreover, many animal alarms are not acknowledged. A number of animal and human observations in Northern Italy are reported, which can suggests physical observations potentially connected with seismic events. The study of seismic precursors is still in its infancy, the error margin on temporal and spatial forecast is still large and must be evaluated. Being so, a multiple parameter physical monitoring started recently in Western Piedmont, which is useful to propose the study of seismic precursors possibly linked to animal behaviour. Electric and magnetic detectors were operating together with alpha particle and acoustic detectors, while a collection of anomalous biological and meteorological observations were taken. Variations in the recent years of the magnetic declination revealed to be a good candidate to precursor, related to the direction of compression, traction and stretching on rocks, even if the geographic localization of future earthquakes is still impossible. In case of some local unusual animal behaviours it can suggest the occurrence of a local seismic event with epicentre distance ≤ 100 km. Statistical information on warnings from local dogs and cats are given.
Unusual Animal Behaviour before Earthquakes and Multiple Parameter Monitoring in Western Piedmont
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140301.13
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Giovanna de Liso
Cristiano Fidani
Andrea Viotto
Unusual Animal Behaviour before Earthquakes and Multiple Parameter Monitoring in Western Piedmont
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25
25
2014-01-01
2014-01-01
10.11648/j.earth.20140301.13
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140301.13
© Science Publishing Group
The Modification of the Matrix Method for the Modelling of Propagation of the Body Waves
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140301.11
The modification of the matrix method of construction of wavefield on the free surface of an anisotropic medium is presented. The earthquake source represented by a randomly oriented force or a seismic moment tensor is placed on an arbitrary boundary of a layered anisotropic medium. The theory of the matrix propagator in a homogeneous anisotropic medium by introducing a "wave propagator" is presented. It is shown that for anisotropic layered medium the matrix propagator can be represented by a "wave propagator" in each layer. The matrix propagator P(z,z0=0) acts on the free surface of the layered medium and generates stress-displacement vector at depth z. The displacement field on the free surface of an anisotropic medium is obtained from the received system of equations considering the radiation condition and that the free surface is stressless. The approbation of the modification of the matrix method for isotropic and anisotropic media with TI symmetry is done. A comparative analysis of our results with the synthetic seismic records obtained by other methods and published in foreign papers is executed.
The modification of the matrix method of construction of wavefield on the free surface of an anisotropic medium is presented. The earthquake source represented by a randomly oriented force or a seismic moment tensor is placed on an arbitrary boundary of a layered anisotropic medium. The theory of the matrix propagator in a homogeneous anisotropic medium by introducing a "wave propagator" is presented. It is shown that for anisotropic layered medium the matrix propagator can be represented by a "wave propagator" in each layer. The matrix propagator P(z,z0=0) acts on the free surface of the layered medium and generates stress-displacement vector at depth z. The displacement field on the free surface of an anisotropic medium is obtained from the received system of equations considering the radiation condition and that the free surface is stressless. The approbation of the modification of the matrix method for isotropic and anisotropic media with TI symmetry is done. A comparative analysis of our results with the synthetic seismic records obtained by other methods and published in foreign papers is executed.
The Modification of the Matrix Method for the Modelling of Propagation of the Body Waves
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140301.11
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Anastasiia Pavlova
The Modification of the Matrix Method for the Modelling of Propagation of the Body Waves
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1
8
8
2014-01-01
2014-01-01
10.11648/j.earth.20140301.11
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140301.11
© Science Publishing Group
Noble Metals, U, Pb and HREE Bearing Baddeleyite from Placer Sands of Manavalakurichi, Tamil Nadu, India
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140301.15
Heavy mineral placer sands were collected from Manavalakurichi, Tamil Nadu. A broken piece of a euhedral grain of dark brown placer sand grain was examined under High Resolution Scanning Electron microscope attached with EDAX probe analyzer. The grain is enriched with zirconium oxide but it is greatly impoverished in silica to form zircon. From normative calculation, it is known that ZrO2 remains as 47% wt% as baddeleyite after saturating 36% of zircon with all available cations to fill tetrahedral sites. The mineral is enriched with heavy rare earth elements, dense platinum group of elements and gold. LREE, PGE of lower atomic numbers and Ag are characteristically absent in this mineral. The numbers of ions calculated on the basis of 2(O) ions for baddeleyite (Zr0.662 P0.065 Fe0.029 Y0.029 U0.028Dy0.014Si0.111Hf0.008Al0.008 Os0.008Ir0.008Pt0.007 Pb0.007 Ta0.006 Au0.006 Ti0.005 Lu0.005 Na0.004Yb0.004) structure indicating deficiency of 0.105 metallic ions after entering all the metallic ions into the mineral structure. The high Zr/Hf, ratio of 45.9 indicates that early crystallization of baddeleyite. Therefore, it might be related to the provenance of either silica undersaturated ultrabasic rocks or volcanic rocks derived from mantle horizon probably crystallized at temperature below 1170oC.
Heavy mineral placer sands were collected from Manavalakurichi, Tamil Nadu. A broken piece of a euhedral grain of dark brown placer sand grain was examined under High Resolution Scanning Electron microscope attached with EDAX probe analyzer. The grain is enriched with zirconium oxide but it is greatly impoverished in silica to form zircon. From normative calculation, it is known that ZrO2 remains as 47% wt% as baddeleyite after saturating 36% of zircon with all available cations to fill tetrahedral sites. The mineral is enriched with heavy rare earth elements, dense platinum group of elements and gold. LREE, PGE of lower atomic numbers and Ag are characteristically absent in this mineral. The numbers of ions calculated on the basis of 2(O) ions for baddeleyite (Zr0.662 P0.065 Fe0.029 Y0.029 U0.028Dy0.014Si0.111Hf0.008Al0.008 Os0.008Ir0.008Pt0.007 Pb0.007 Ta0.006 Au0.006 Ti0.005 Lu0.005 Na0.004Yb0.004) structure indicating deficiency of 0.105 metallic ions after entering all the metallic ions into the mineral structure. The high Zr/Hf, ratio of 45.9 indicates that early crystallization of baddeleyite. Therefore, it might be related to the provenance of either silica undersaturated ultrabasic rocks or volcanic rocks derived from mantle horizon probably crystallized at temperature below 1170oC.
Noble Metals, U, Pb and HREE Bearing Baddeleyite from Placer Sands of Manavalakurichi, Tamil Nadu, India
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140301.15
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Ramachandran Ramasamy
Subramanian Subramanian
Ranganathan Sundaravadivelu
Noble Metals, U, Pb and HREE Bearing Baddeleyite from Placer Sands of Manavalakurichi, Tamil Nadu, India
3
1
33
33
2014-01-01
2014-01-01
10.11648/j.earth.20140301.15
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140301.15
© Science Publishing Group
Novel Fusion Electrokinetic Technology with Gas Re-Injection (GREK) for Soil Remediation and Stabilization
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140301.12
In this study, a gas reinjection type electrokinetic remediation treatment process (GREK) was proposed as the method for the restoration and stabilization of contaminated soil. The proposed electrokinetic remediation was a new technique, where treatment was performed by reinjecting the surplus gas, which was produced from an anode chamber, into soil, in order to remove the heavy metals and moisture that exist in clayey soil or clayey-sandy soil with low hydraulic conductivity. The manufactured samples were completed through the compression process, in which pressure was gradually increased to a final pressure of 2.11 kgf/cm2 (30 psi) during a total of 7 days. Before the compression, the samples were taken, and the heavy metal concentration and water content were measured. For the gas reinjection type electrokinetic remediation treatment process (GREK) and non-injection type treatment method, continuous treatment processes were performed for 24 hours at a voltage gradient of 2 V/cm. The results of the water content indicated that the gas reinjection type electrokinetic remediation treatment process (GREK) was about 3% higher than that for non-injection type treatment method. The removal efficiency of chromium (Cr)indicated that the gas reinjection type electrokinetic remediation treatment process (GREK) was about 15% higher than that for non-injection type treatment method. The removal efficiency of cadmium (Cd) indicated that the gas reinjection type electrokinetic remediation treatment process (GREK) was about 22% higher than that for non-injection type treatment method. It is expected that the proposed gas reinjection type treatment method would contribute to convergence electrokinetic treatment processes in the future.
In this study, a gas reinjection type electrokinetic remediation treatment process (GREK) was proposed as the method for the restoration and stabilization of contaminated soil. The proposed electrokinetic remediation was a new technique, where treatment was performed by reinjecting the surplus gas, which was produced from an anode chamber, into soil, in order to remove the heavy metals and moisture that exist in clayey soil or clayey-sandy soil with low hydraulic conductivity. The manufactured samples were completed through the compression process, in which pressure was gradually increased to a final pressure of 2.11 kgf/cm2 (30 psi) during a total of 7 days. Before the compression, the samples were taken, and the heavy metal concentration and water content were measured. For the gas reinjection type electrokinetic remediation treatment process (GREK) and non-injection type treatment method, continuous treatment processes were performed for 24 hours at a voltage gradient of 2 V/cm. The results of the water content indicated that the gas reinjection type electrokinetic remediation treatment process (GREK) was about 3% higher than that for non-injection type treatment method. The removal efficiency of chromium (Cr)indicated that the gas reinjection type electrokinetic remediation treatment process (GREK) was about 15% higher than that for non-injection type treatment method. The removal efficiency of cadmium (Cd) indicated that the gas reinjection type electrokinetic remediation treatment process (GREK) was about 22% higher than that for non-injection type treatment method. It is expected that the proposed gas reinjection type treatment method would contribute to convergence electrokinetic treatment processes in the future.
Novel Fusion Electrokinetic Technology with Gas Re-Injection (GREK) for Soil Remediation and Stabilization
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140301.12
Earth Sciences
2014-01-01
© Science Publishing Group
Sanghee Shin
Novel Fusion Electrokinetic Technology with Gas Re-Injection (GREK) for Soil Remediation and Stabilization
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1
13
13
2014-01-01
2014-01-01
10.11648/j.earth.20140301.12
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140301.12
© Science Publishing Group
Kinematic Assessment of Rock Slope Stability at Obajana and Ewekoro Quarries
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140302.11
The research work assessed the stability of rock slopes for optimum exploitation of limestone deposits at Obajana in Kogi State and Ewekoro in Ogun state. Geological mapping was carried out to measure the orientations of discontinuities. The orientation data obtained were plotted on stereonets to determine pole concentration and major joint sets using Dips 5.0 software from Rocscience. Two joint sets were identified in Obajana with orientations of 720/0890 and 880/2210 while three joint sets with orientations of 610/0480, 160/2800 and 900/1400 were identified in Ewekoro quarry face. The Dips software was further used to perform kinematic analyses for toppling, planar and wedge failures for each of the faces investigated. The friction angles for the kinematic analyses were obtained using Roclab 1.0 software (Rocscience, 2002). The results of the analyses show that toppling failure cannot occur in Obajana while planar and wedge failures may occur. The three failure modes (toppling, planar and wedge) were identified in Ewekoro.
The research work assessed the stability of rock slopes for optimum exploitation of limestone deposits at Obajana in Kogi State and Ewekoro in Ogun state. Geological mapping was carried out to measure the orientations of discontinuities. The orientation data obtained were plotted on stereonets to determine pole concentration and major joint sets using Dips 5.0 software from Rocscience. Two joint sets were identified in Obajana with orientations of 720/0890 and 880/2210 while three joint sets with orientations of 610/0480, 160/2800 and 900/1400 were identified in Ewekoro quarry face. The Dips software was further used to perform kinematic analyses for toppling, planar and wedge failures for each of the faces investigated. The friction angles for the kinematic analyses were obtained using Roclab 1.0 software (Rocscience, 2002). The results of the analyses show that toppling failure cannot occur in Obajana while planar and wedge failures may occur. The three failure modes (toppling, planar and wedge) were identified in Ewekoro.
Kinematic Assessment of Rock Slope Stability at Obajana and Ewekoro Quarries
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140302.11
Earth Sciences
2014-04-09
© Science Publishing Group
Saliu Muyideen Alade
Shehu Shaib Abdulazeez
Kinematic Assessment of Rock Slope Stability at Obajana and Ewekoro Quarries
3
2
41
41
2014-04-09
2014-04-09
10.11648/j.earth.20140302.11
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140302.11
© Science Publishing Group
Assessment of Excavation Method of Obajana and Ewekoro Limestone Deposits
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140302.12
The research work assessed the optimum excavation method of limestone deposits at Obajana in Kogi State and Ewekoro in Ogun state. Geological mapping was carried out to measure the orientations of discontinuities. The orientation data obtained were plotted on stereonets to determine pole concentration and major joint sets using Dips 5.0 software from Rocscience. Two joint sets were identified in Obajana with orientations of 720/0890 and 880/2210 while three joint sets with orientations of 610/0480, 160/2800 and 900/1400 were identified in Ewekoro quarry face. Schmidt hammer hardness and Unit weight tests were performed. The results obtained were used to evaluate the Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) and consequently, the Point load index (Is) of the rock studied. The excavation method was assessed using Discontinuity Spacing Index (If), the Point load index (Is) and the Geological Strength Index (GSI). The discontinuity spacing index was evaluated from the major joint sets identified and the determination of the volumetric joint count (Jv).The geological strength index was estimated using an inbuilt chart of RocLab 1.0 from Rocscience. Excavation assessments revealed that “Very Hard Ripping” is a possible method of excavating Obajana and Ewekoro Type III deposits while the less dense Type I deposit of Ewekoro can be “Ripped”. The only feasible excavation method for Ewekoro type II deposit is “Blasting”.
The research work assessed the optimum excavation method of limestone deposits at Obajana in Kogi State and Ewekoro in Ogun state. Geological mapping was carried out to measure the orientations of discontinuities. The orientation data obtained were plotted on stereonets to determine pole concentration and major joint sets using Dips 5.0 software from Rocscience. Two joint sets were identified in Obajana with orientations of 720/0890 and 880/2210 while three joint sets with orientations of 610/0480, 160/2800 and 900/1400 were identified in Ewekoro quarry face. Schmidt hammer hardness and Unit weight tests were performed. The results obtained were used to evaluate the Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) and consequently, the Point load index (Is) of the rock studied. The excavation method was assessed using Discontinuity Spacing Index (If), the Point load index (Is) and the Geological Strength Index (GSI). The discontinuity spacing index was evaluated from the major joint sets identified and the determination of the volumetric joint count (Jv).The geological strength index was estimated using an inbuilt chart of RocLab 1.0 from Rocscience. Excavation assessments revealed that “Very Hard Ripping” is a possible method of excavating Obajana and Ewekoro Type III deposits while the less dense Type I deposit of Ewekoro can be “Ripped”. The only feasible excavation method for Ewekoro type II deposit is “Blasting”.
Assessment of Excavation Method of Obajana and Ewekoro Limestone Deposits
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140302.12
Earth Sciences
2014-04-09
© Science Publishing Group
SALIU Muyideen Alade
SHEHU Shaib Abdulazeez
Assessment of Excavation Method of Obajana and Ewekoro Limestone Deposits
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2
49
49
2014-04-09
2014-04-09
10.11648/j.earth.20140302.12
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140302.12
© Science Publishing Group
Surface and Subsurface Temperature Variations during 2009 El Niño Manifestation over Central and Tropical Pacific Ocean
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140302.13
Tropical Pacific Ocean is an important to study for identifying the influence on Global circulation. El Niño /La Nina even occurs over the tropical Pacific Ocean, with temperatures oscillations. With respect to increase in temperatures, the intensity of El Niño can be divided into strong, moderate and weak. As per the intensity, the year 2009 is a moderate El Niño, but is peculiar due to delay in formation. In this article, TAO/TRITON data is used for analysis between November 2008 and December 2009 to check the variations in the surface and sub-surface temperatures during the manifestation of El Niño. Actually El Niño manifest during December, but during 2009 El Niño it manifested in January. There is a clear evidence in surface and sub-surface temperatures as they are increasing from January 2009, which can explains the manifestation of El Niño
Tropical Pacific Ocean is an important to study for identifying the influence on Global circulation. El Niño /La Nina even occurs over the tropical Pacific Ocean, with temperatures oscillations. With respect to increase in temperatures, the intensity of El Niño can be divided into strong, moderate and weak. As per the intensity, the year 2009 is a moderate El Niño, but is peculiar due to delay in formation. In this article, TAO/TRITON data is used for analysis between November 2008 and December 2009 to check the variations in the surface and sub-surface temperatures during the manifestation of El Niño. Actually El Niño manifest during December, but during 2009 El Niño it manifested in January. There is a clear evidence in surface and sub-surface temperatures as they are increasing from January 2009, which can explains the manifestation of El Niño
Surface and Subsurface Temperature Variations during 2009 El Niño Manifestation over Central and Tropical Pacific Ocean
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140302.13
Earth Sciences
2014-04-11
© Science Publishing Group
M. V. Subrahmanyam
Surface and Subsurface Temperature Variations during 2009 El Niño Manifestation over Central and Tropical Pacific Ocean
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57
57
2014-04-11
2014-04-11
10.11648/j.earth.20140302.13
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140302.13
© Science Publishing Group
Future Trend of Mineral Industries Development in Indonesia
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140302.14
The aim of this study is to figure out the vision of effort of utilizing the remainder of the available mineral asset in the country, where Indonesia is necessarily seeking new opportunity toward developing mineral industry (hydro-carbon, metal, and non-metal) such as fine chemical industry, alloy (stainless/tool steel), fibre, ceramic block, super/semiconductor in the purpose of supporting super downstream industry that could produce massive mineral products containing high added value. Moreover, those downstream industries require high quantity and quality of minerals as raw material. The methodology applied in this study is based on a descriptive analytical method combined with dynamic commodity models to find the problems encountered in the effort to gain highest added value in mineral utilization.
The aim of this study is to figure out the vision of effort of utilizing the remainder of the available mineral asset in the country, where Indonesia is necessarily seeking new opportunity toward developing mineral industry (hydro-carbon, metal, and non-metal) such as fine chemical industry, alloy (stainless/tool steel), fibre, ceramic block, super/semiconductor in the purpose of supporting super downstream industry that could produce massive mineral products containing high added value. Moreover, those downstream industries require high quantity and quality of minerals as raw material. The methodology applied in this study is based on a descriptive analytical method combined with dynamic commodity models to find the problems encountered in the effort to gain highest added value in mineral utilization.
Future Trend of Mineral Industries Development in Indonesia
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140302.14
Earth Sciences
2014-05-08
© Science Publishing Group
Ukar Wijaya Soelistijo
La Ode Aswandi
Future Trend of Mineral Industries Development in Indonesia
3
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67
2014-05-08
2014-05-08
10.11648/j.earth.20140302.14
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140302.14
© Science Publishing Group
Rotation Forcing of Tectonics and Climate
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140303.11
Contrary to predictions of the tidal torque model, length of day (LOD) decreases over a series of fluctuations since 1960s at least. The so far deepest LOD depression of 1997 – 2010 corresponds to the most prominent rises of total seismic activity and global mean temperatures. A conspicuously flat interval of the LOD curve uniformly at or slightly below –0.1 ms level in 2001 – 2005 roughly coincides with the similarly flattened high plateaus of total seismicity (2002 – 2008) and temperature anomalies (2002 – 2007), indicating causal relationships. Pearson correlation coefficients about –0.5 (p ≈ 0.03) for both LOD/earthquake frequencies and LOD/temperature anomalies are raised to –0.76 (p = 0.002) and –0.71 (p = 0.001) respectively on supposition of about two year lag between rotation forcing and the maximal geophysical effects. Non-random earthquake frequency distribution between the geoid rises and depressions is clear evidence of rotation forcing, with about 60% significant earthquakes over the highest equatorial Papua – Solomon Islands rise. The world largest ophiolite massive in the central part of the rise marks the area of mantle upheaval, coinciding with the ‘critical Niño3.4 region’ of operational WMO definitions. El Niño years prevail over the high plateau of temperature dynamics. These observations are meaningful in respect to the model of rotational forcing at the base of concerted global change. The mass/angular momentum transfer with magmatic activity is seen as a stabilizing feedback, with a lag about 2.5 years preliminarily inferred from a case study of El Niño /Mount Etna eruption dynamics.
Contrary to predictions of the tidal torque model, length of day (LOD) decreases over a series of fluctuations since 1960s at least. The so far deepest LOD depression of 1997 – 2010 corresponds to the most prominent rises of total seismic activity and global mean temperatures. A conspicuously flat interval of the LOD curve uniformly at or slightly below –0.1 ms level in 2001 – 2005 roughly coincides with the similarly flattened high plateaus of total seismicity (2002 – 2008) and temperature anomalies (2002 – 2007), indicating causal relationships. Pearson correlation coefficients about –0.5 (p ≈ 0.03) for both LOD/earthquake frequencies and LOD/temperature anomalies are raised to –0.76 (p = 0.002) and –0.71 (p = 0.001) respectively on supposition of about two year lag between rotation forcing and the maximal geophysical effects. Non-random earthquake frequency distribution between the geoid rises and depressions is clear evidence of rotation forcing, with about 60% significant earthquakes over the highest equatorial Papua – Solomon Islands rise. The world largest ophiolite massive in the central part of the rise marks the area of mantle upheaval, coinciding with the ‘critical Niño3.4 region’ of operational WMO definitions. El Niño years prevail over the high plateau of temperature dynamics. These observations are meaningful in respect to the model of rotational forcing at the base of concerted global change. The mass/angular momentum transfer with magmatic activity is seen as a stabilizing feedback, with a lag about 2.5 years preliminarily inferred from a case study of El Niño /Mount Etna eruption dynamics.
Rotation Forcing of Tectonics and Climate
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140303.11
Earth Sciences
2014-06-24
© Science Publishing Group
Valentin Krassilov
Sophia Barinova
Svyatoslav Rybnikov
Rotation Forcing of Tectonics and Climate
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2014-06-24
2014-06-24
10.11648/j.earth.20140303.11
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140303.11
© Science Publishing Group
Cenozoic Eruptive Stratigraphy and Structure in Taiz area of Yemen
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140303.13
The present study focuses on the field description of a bimodal volcanic rock centre and fault types present in Taiz area located in the southern part of Yemen. Taiz area serves as one of the key areas to understand the Afro-Arabian bimodal volcanism and the emplacement of Afar plume and the relationship between extension tectonics and magmatism. Taiz area comprises bimodal volcanic rocks encompassing mafic and silicic lava flows and pyroclastic rocks. The lava flows were erupted in five phases – three major basic and two acid phases. Lower basalt sequence (Tb1) is the oldest and main phase of flood basalt volcanism, formed as part of a wide spread volcanism within the Afro-Arabian region. This is followed by lower silicic sequence phase (Tr1) consisting of varied assortment of lithologies such as rhyolite flows with subordinate ignimbrites, welded ash, pyroclastic breccia, and random pumice and obsidian. The middle basalt sequence phase (Tb2) has been formed from the flows fed by fissure-dyke systems and separated from Tr1 by red colored weathering band of saprolitic bole (paleosol). The latest silicic sequence phase (Tr2) with limited exposures in the region, comprises rhyolitic plug domes, rhyolitic lava flows and locally welded and unwelded volcaniclastic deposits. In places, the silicic volcanic rocks have been diagenetically altered to bentonitic clay minerals and zeolites. The youngest phase of volcanic rocks represented by the basaltic rocks in the region (Tb3) is exposed in few outcrops along the southeastern slope of the mapped area and conformably capping the Tr2. It includes the basaltic flows intercalated with mafic conglomerate and tuff layers. The study area has been subjected to tensional tectonic regime throughout much of the Tertiary and extensions led to volcanism, granitic rock intrusions and formation of structural elements such as normal faults and deep joints. NW, NE, and E-W are the three major trends of faults recognized and these are related to the progressive rifting of Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.
The present study focuses on the field description of a bimodal volcanic rock centre and fault types present in Taiz area located in the southern part of Yemen. Taiz area serves as one of the key areas to understand the Afro-Arabian bimodal volcanism and the emplacement of Afar plume and the relationship between extension tectonics and magmatism. Taiz area comprises bimodal volcanic rocks encompassing mafic and silicic lava flows and pyroclastic rocks. The lava flows were erupted in five phases – three major basic and two acid phases. Lower basalt sequence (Tb1) is the oldest and main phase of flood basalt volcanism, formed as part of a wide spread volcanism within the Afro-Arabian region. This is followed by lower silicic sequence phase (Tr1) consisting of varied assortment of lithologies such as rhyolite flows with subordinate ignimbrites, welded ash, pyroclastic breccia, and random pumice and obsidian. The middle basalt sequence phase (Tb2) has been formed from the flows fed by fissure-dyke systems and separated from Tr1 by red colored weathering band of saprolitic bole (paleosol). The latest silicic sequence phase (Tr2) with limited exposures in the region, comprises rhyolitic plug domes, rhyolitic lava flows and locally welded and unwelded volcaniclastic deposits. In places, the silicic volcanic rocks have been diagenetically altered to bentonitic clay minerals and zeolites. The youngest phase of volcanic rocks represented by the basaltic rocks in the region (Tb3) is exposed in few outcrops along the southeastern slope of the mapped area and conformably capping the Tr2. It includes the basaltic flows intercalated with mafic conglomerate and tuff layers. The study area has been subjected to tensional tectonic regime throughout much of the Tertiary and extensions led to volcanism, granitic rock intrusions and formation of structural elements such as normal faults and deep joints. NW, NE, and E-W are the three major trends of faults recognized and these are related to the progressive rifting of Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.
Cenozoic Eruptive Stratigraphy and Structure in Taiz area of Yemen
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140303.13
Earth Sciences
2014-07-07
© Science Publishing Group
Abdul-Hamid Malek
Mysore Ramachandraiah Janardhana
Abdul-Aleam Ahmed Al-Qadhi
Cenozoic Eruptive Stratigraphy and Structure in Taiz area of Yemen
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3
96
96
2014-07-07
2014-07-07
10.11648/j.earth.20140303.13
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140303.13
© Science Publishing Group
Remote Sensing and GIS Contribution to the Detection of Coastal Slope Failure in the Safi Area, Morocco
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140303.12
Located in the urban area, the cliff of Sidi Bouzid and Amouni shows slope instabilities due to falls and collapse blocks and rotational block gliding. These phenomena form a risk to the economic, social, cultural and environmental issues. Geomorphologic, lithologic and tectonic conditions (ie surfaces of discontinuities such as fractures) combined with the influence of marine abrasion explain the increased instability of this part of the Sahel - Safi. This ongoing slope failure is a handicap for coastal development projects. The activity of these phenomena -more or less remarkable- is monitored by the GIS integrated observation and evaluation of field, aerial and satellite data, allowing to establish synthesis maps that give a risk assessment in this sector. Digital Elevation Model (ASTER_GDEM2) is used for the morphometric analysis of this area and as a base for the weighted overlay of causal / preparatory morphometric factors influencing the slope stability.
Located in the urban area, the cliff of Sidi Bouzid and Amouni shows slope instabilities due to falls and collapse blocks and rotational block gliding. These phenomena form a risk to the economic, social, cultural and environmental issues. Geomorphologic, lithologic and tectonic conditions (ie surfaces of discontinuities such as fractures) combined with the influence of marine abrasion explain the increased instability of this part of the Sahel - Safi. This ongoing slope failure is a handicap for coastal development projects. The activity of these phenomena -more or less remarkable- is monitored by the GIS integrated observation and evaluation of field, aerial and satellite data, allowing to establish synthesis maps that give a risk assessment in this sector. Digital Elevation Model (ASTER_GDEM2) is used for the morphometric analysis of this area and as a base for the weighted overlay of causal / preparatory morphometric factors influencing the slope stability.
Remote Sensing and GIS Contribution to the Detection of Coastal Slope Failure in the Safi Area, Morocco
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140303.12
Earth Sciences
2014-06-27
© Science Publishing Group
El Bchari, Fatima
Theilen-Willige, Barbara
Ait Malek Halima
Remote Sensing and GIS Contribution to the Detection of Coastal Slope Failure in the Safi Area, Morocco
3
3
84
84
2014-06-27
2014-06-27
10.11648/j.earth.20140303.12
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140303.12
© Science Publishing Group
Analysis of Problems for Worldwide Mangroves
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140304.11
Mangroves supports a diverse fauna and flora, approximately one million people of Bangladesh and India depend on it directly for their livelihood, and also it provides a critical natural habitat which helps protect the low lying country and its population from natural catastrophes such as cyclones. Despite this role, mangroves particularly Sundarbans has been facing tremendous problems, including that of dieback (top-dying), human destructions, deforestations, illicit fellings, miss-management of the main tree species (Heritiera fomes) which is affecting millions of trees. The cause of this dieback is still not well understood unknown. The present work has investigated one of the possible factors that might be causing this problems like top-dying, namely the concentrations of various chemical elements present in the sediments, particularly heavy metals, though other chemical parameters such as the pH, salinity, moisture content of the sediment and nutrient status were also assessed. Tree height and trunk diameter were determined as indications of tree growth, counts of seedlings and saplings were made to assess regeneration success, and the intensity of top-dying within the sampled plots was recorded on a rank scale. However, the present results have showed that Sn, Exchangeable K, soil pH, Pb , Zn and Ni could be directly linked with top-dying disease of Heritiera fomes (Sundri) in Sundarbans, probably particularly by weakening the vigor of the trees and people and allowing other factors such as pathological agents to attack the plants and surrounding people in Sundarbans, Bangladesh (Awal, 2014).
Mangroves supports a diverse fauna and flora, approximately one million people of Bangladesh and India depend on it directly for their livelihood, and also it provides a critical natural habitat which helps protect the low lying country and its population from natural catastrophes such as cyclones. Despite this role, mangroves particularly Sundarbans has been facing tremendous problems, including that of dieback (top-dying), human destructions, deforestations, illicit fellings, miss-management of the main tree species (Heritiera fomes) which is affecting millions of trees. The cause of this dieback is still not well understood unknown. The present work has investigated one of the possible factors that might be causing this problems like top-dying, namely the concentrations of various chemical elements present in the sediments, particularly heavy metals, though other chemical parameters such as the pH, salinity, moisture content of the sediment and nutrient status were also assessed. Tree height and trunk diameter were determined as indications of tree growth, counts of seedlings and saplings were made to assess regeneration success, and the intensity of top-dying within the sampled plots was recorded on a rank scale. However, the present results have showed that Sn, Exchangeable K, soil pH, Pb , Zn and Ni could be directly linked with top-dying disease of Heritiera fomes (Sundri) in Sundarbans, probably particularly by weakening the vigor of the trees and people and allowing other factors such as pathological agents to attack the plants and surrounding people in Sundarbans, Bangladesh (Awal, 2014).
Analysis of Problems for Worldwide Mangroves
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140304.11
Earth Sciences
2014-08-29
© Science Publishing Group
Awal, Mohd Abdul
Analysis of Problems for Worldwide Mangroves
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2014-08-29
2014-08-29
10.11648/j.earth.20140304.11
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140304.11
© Science Publishing Group
Major and Some Trace Elements Concentrations of Miocene-Aged Alpu Coals, Eskişehir, Turkey
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140304.12
Elemental contents, organic matter, and relation with Miocene-aged coal samples were analyzed in Alpu, Eskişehir, Turkey. The coal samples were identified as upper and lower seams in the m2 series. This series includes the following from the bottom to the top: claystone–marl, coal lower seam, sandstone, siltstone–claystone, upper coal seam, and claystone–sandstone–gravelstone. A total of 17 coal samples (eight and nine from the upper and the lower seam) were collected from five boreholes. Proximate and element analyses of the samples were performed and evaluated. In an air-dried basis, the upper and the lower seam have low average moisture contents (about 8% and 6%), average moderate ash yields (about 31% and 28%), and high total average calorific values (about 3215 and 2934 kcal/kg). The major elements found in Miocene-aged coal in this area are Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, K, Ca, Ti, Mn, Fe, and S. Compared with the average world coal content, major elemental contents of the two seams have highly enriched levels. Some trace elemental contents (e.g., V, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Ba, Pb, Zr, and As) of the studied coal samples indicate similarity between the two coal seams, which are highly depleted with respect to the world average. The Al and Si contents of both coal seams have positive correlations with the ash yield, whereas those of Mg, Na, Ca, and Fe have negative correlations. The concentrations of Ni and Ba in these seams are positively correlated with the ash yield, and that of Sr and Zr have negative correlations.
Elemental contents, organic matter, and relation with Miocene-aged coal samples were analyzed in Alpu, Eskişehir, Turkey. The coal samples were identified as upper and lower seams in the m2 series. This series includes the following from the bottom to the top: claystone–marl, coal lower seam, sandstone, siltstone–claystone, upper coal seam, and claystone–sandstone–gravelstone. A total of 17 coal samples (eight and nine from the upper and the lower seam) were collected from five boreholes. Proximate and element analyses of the samples were performed and evaluated. In an air-dried basis, the upper and the lower seam have low average moisture contents (about 8% and 6%), average moderate ash yields (about 31% and 28%), and high total average calorific values (about 3215 and 2934 kcal/kg). The major elements found in Miocene-aged coal in this area are Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, K, Ca, Ti, Mn, Fe, and S. Compared with the average world coal content, major elemental contents of the two seams have highly enriched levels. Some trace elemental contents (e.g., V, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Ba, Pb, Zr, and As) of the studied coal samples indicate similarity between the two coal seams, which are highly depleted with respect to the world average. The Al and Si contents of both coal seams have positive correlations with the ash yield, whereas those of Mg, Na, Ca, and Fe have negative correlations. The concentrations of Ni and Ba in these seams are positively correlated with the ash yield, and that of Sr and Zr have negative correlations.
Major and Some Trace Elements Concentrations of Miocene-Aged Alpu Coals, Eskişehir, Turkey
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140304.12
Earth Sciences
2014-10-15
© Science Publishing Group
Cigdem Saydam Eker
Ejder Yapici
Major and Some Trace Elements Concentrations of Miocene-Aged Alpu Coals, Eskişehir, Turkey
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4
116
116
2014-10-15
2014-10-15
10.11648/j.earth.20140304.12
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140304.12
© Science Publishing Group
Consideration of Tobacco Dust as Organic Amendment for Soil: A Soil & Waste Management Strategy
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140305.11
Soil is non-renewable reserve that has high frequency of contamination and very low rate of replenishment in this environment. Immense food requirements have evolved the compelled usage of chemical fertilizers to have optimum crop leaf area in minimum time scale that have devastating impacts on biological, physical and chemical properties of the soil. Organic farming is an ultimate solution for the soil management. Tobacco dust an agro-industrial waste can be applied to the soil to recycle essential nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and potassium (K) back into the soil that plant has taken up from the soil. Tobacco dust is rich in nitrogen (N) (2.35%), potassium (K) (1.95%) and phosphorous (P) (937 ug/g) which can provide essential nutrients to the soil and plant. It has abundant quantity of organic content that exceeds the micro and macro-organism movement in soil which further increases the porosity of the soil; increase the infiltration of the oxygen. This study has indicate that tobacco dust increases the pH of the soil, maintain the electrical conductivity (EC) that does not leads to the salinity of the soil. Further it also increases the nitrogen (N) content in various vegetable, house-plants and wheat straws and increases the biomass content and average survival rate of the tomatoes. It’s a good insecticide; prevent the insects and other viruses such as Tobacco mosaic virus that are detrimental for the crops such as pepper, cucumber that shows light and dark green, crinkled, puckered leaves. Furthermore it’s an eco-friendly management strategy for soil, environment and human health that does not generates pollution however it reduces the organic waste.
Soil is non-renewable reserve that has high frequency of contamination and very low rate of replenishment in this environment. Immense food requirements have evolved the compelled usage of chemical fertilizers to have optimum crop leaf area in minimum time scale that have devastating impacts on biological, physical and chemical properties of the soil. Organic farming is an ultimate solution for the soil management. Tobacco dust an agro-industrial waste can be applied to the soil to recycle essential nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and potassium (K) back into the soil that plant has taken up from the soil. Tobacco dust is rich in nitrogen (N) (2.35%), potassium (K) (1.95%) and phosphorous (P) (937 ug/g) which can provide essential nutrients to the soil and plant. It has abundant quantity of organic content that exceeds the micro and macro-organism movement in soil which further increases the porosity of the soil; increase the infiltration of the oxygen. This study has indicate that tobacco dust increases the pH of the soil, maintain the electrical conductivity (EC) that does not leads to the salinity of the soil. Further it also increases the nitrogen (N) content in various vegetable, house-plants and wheat straws and increases the biomass content and average survival rate of the tomatoes. It’s a good insecticide; prevent the insects and other viruses such as Tobacco mosaic virus that are detrimental for the crops such as pepper, cucumber that shows light and dark green, crinkled, puckered leaves. Furthermore it’s an eco-friendly management strategy for soil, environment and human health that does not generates pollution however it reduces the organic waste.
Consideration of Tobacco Dust as Organic Amendment for Soil: A Soil & Waste Management Strategy
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140305.11
Earth Sciences
2014-12-05
© Science Publishing Group
Sarah Shakeel
Consideration of Tobacco Dust as Organic Amendment for Soil: A Soil & Waste Management Strategy
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5
121
121
2014-12-05
2014-12-05
10.11648/j.earth.20140305.11
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140305.11
© Science Publishing Group
Gutenberg-Richter Law Parameters Analysis Using the Hellenic Unified Seismic Network Data Through FastBee Technique
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140305.12
The mapping of the minimum completeness magnitude Mc and parameters (a- and b-value) of the Guttenberg-Richter (G-R) law was studied for Greece territory and adjacent areas by using the new earthquakes catalog produced by the Hellenic Unified Seismological Network (HUSN). For the calculation of the parameters a- and b-values the visual method of the completeness magnitude (Mc) definition was used by means of FastBee technique. The results show that with the commissioning of the new network HUSN, the Mc have significantly decreased and have achieved the value M=1.5 in the central part of Greece and practically up to M=2.0 for the entire territory. Despite the short time of observation (11.2011-05.2014) the statistical reliable pattern of the spatial distribution of the G-R law parameters for territory of Greece was derived. In generally the spatial distributions of a- and b-value reflect the known seismotectonic structures of Greece. The distribution of the relatively low b-value coincides with the tectonic compression field which acts along the Hellenic Trench. The relatively low b-value is also observed on the northern-eastern part of Greece. The relatively high values of b-value meet mainly in the central Greece, where the extensional stress field dominates. The spatial pattern of the parameter a-value is reflecting the seismic activity of the under study region. The results of detailed analysis of b-value distribution with depth in the Corinthian Gulf area show that its values significantly decreased (from 1.6 to 0.76) in depth interval from 1 up to 17 km and then gradually increased up to 30 km. The pattern of b-value in depth distribution in this region was interpreted in the frame of hypothesis about the brittle-ductile transition zone existence. On the basis of this result, it is supposed that detailed study of the b-value distribution versus depth can be used for assessment of the focal depths of the impending strong earthquake. The present results show the applicability and the efficiency of the FastBEE technique for three dimension mapping of Mc and the G-R parameters.
The mapping of the minimum completeness magnitude Mc and parameters (a- and b-value) of the Guttenberg-Richter (G-R) law was studied for Greece territory and adjacent areas by using the new earthquakes catalog produced by the Hellenic Unified Seismological Network (HUSN). For the calculation of the parameters a- and b-values the visual method of the completeness magnitude (Mc) definition was used by means of FastBee technique. The results show that with the commissioning of the new network HUSN, the Mc have significantly decreased and have achieved the value M=1.5 in the central part of Greece and practically up to M=2.0 for the entire territory. Despite the short time of observation (11.2011-05.2014) the statistical reliable pattern of the spatial distribution of the G-R law parameters for territory of Greece was derived. In generally the spatial distributions of a- and b-value reflect the known seismotectonic structures of Greece. The distribution of the relatively low b-value coincides with the tectonic compression field which acts along the Hellenic Trench. The relatively low b-value is also observed on the northern-eastern part of Greece. The relatively high values of b-value meet mainly in the central Greece, where the extensional stress field dominates. The spatial pattern of the parameter a-value is reflecting the seismic activity of the under study region. The results of detailed analysis of b-value distribution with depth in the Corinthian Gulf area show that its values significantly decreased (from 1.6 to 0.76) in depth interval from 1 up to 17 km and then gradually increased up to 30 km. The pattern of b-value in depth distribution in this region was interpreted in the frame of hypothesis about the brittle-ductile transition zone existence. On the basis of this result, it is supposed that detailed study of the b-value distribution versus depth can be used for assessment of the focal depths of the impending strong earthquake. The present results show the applicability and the efficiency of the FastBEE technique for three dimension mapping of Mc and the G-R parameters.
Gutenberg-Richter Law Parameters Analysis Using the Hellenic Unified Seismic Network Data Through FastBee Technique
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140305.12
Earth Sciences
2014-12-17
© Science Publishing Group
Popandopoulos G. A.
Chatziioannou E.
Gutenberg-Richter Law Parameters Analysis Using the Hellenic Unified Seismic Network Data Through FastBee Technique
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5
131
131
2014-12-17
2014-12-17
10.11648/j.earth.20140305.12
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140305.12
© Science Publishing Group
The Test Study of Iron Ion Migration Characteristics on Pollution Laterite
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140306.11
The environmental geotechnical problems seriously affect the safety of geotechnical structure and the sustainable development of ecology. The pollution of laterite which is widely used in the infrastructure construction in Yunnan has been a grave threat to the safety of the laterite structure and groundwater as a result of the environmental problems. According to the proposed test plan for typical laterite and six ferric sulfate hydrate, different compaction work was prepared under different temperature, different moisture content and pollution for compaction sample of laterite, the concentration change of iron ion was analyzed over time, and characteristics of iron ions about the laterite migration change has been clear. The results of migrating, from the features of migrating change about iron ions, presents: at the same moment, with smaller compaction, higher moisture content, and the higher temperature, the migrating of iron ion in laterite is much faster, the concentration of iron ions is higher in the solution; at different moment, with time prolonged, it increases gradually, and it gradually reduces in the laterite. The research results will offer a theoretical foundation to the prevention and remedy of the laterite pollution in Yunnan, and will be very important in solving the problem of pollution caused by the discharge of pollutants. The results will also provide theoretical guide and technological support for the sustainable development of Yunnan economy and ecology as well as for the future laboratory experiments.
The environmental geotechnical problems seriously affect the safety of geotechnical structure and the sustainable development of ecology. The pollution of laterite which is widely used in the infrastructure construction in Yunnan has been a grave threat to the safety of the laterite structure and groundwater as a result of the environmental problems. According to the proposed test plan for typical laterite and six ferric sulfate hydrate, different compaction work was prepared under different temperature, different moisture content and pollution for compaction sample of laterite, the concentration change of iron ion was analyzed over time, and characteristics of iron ions about the laterite migration change has been clear. The results of migrating, from the features of migrating change about iron ions, presents: at the same moment, with smaller compaction, higher moisture content, and the higher temperature, the migrating of iron ion in laterite is much faster, the concentration of iron ions is higher in the solution; at different moment, with time prolonged, it increases gradually, and it gradually reduces in the laterite. The research results will offer a theoretical foundation to the prevention and remedy of the laterite pollution in Yunnan, and will be very important in solving the problem of pollution caused by the discharge of pollutants. The results will also provide theoretical guide and technological support for the sustainable development of Yunnan economy and ecology as well as for the future laboratory experiments.
The Test Study of Iron Ion Migration Characteristics on Pollution Laterite
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140306.11
Earth Sciences
2014-12-28
© Science Publishing Group
Peng Liu
Ying Huang
The Test Study of Iron Ion Migration Characteristics on Pollution Laterite
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6
136
136
2014-12-28
2014-12-28
10.11648/j.earth.20140306.11
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140306.11
© Science Publishing Group
Vegetative Response to Climate Change in the Big Pine Creek Watershed along a 2,500 Meter Elevation Gradient Using Landsat Data
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140306.12
This paper presents a time series study of an alpine ecosystem in the Big Pine Creek watershed in California’s Eastern Sierra Nevada Mountain’s. Seventy five sample sites along a 2,500 meter elevation gradient are analyzed for trends in surface reflectance based on vegetative density using USGS data derived from Landsat imagery for the 1984 through 2013 time frame. Three vegetative indices, NDVI, SAVI, and MSAVI2 as well as the Tasseled Cap transformations for Brightness (TCB), greenness (TCG), and wetness (TCW) are explored. We found that over the time period of the study, significant increases in vegetation are occurring at densely vegetated sites at almost all elevations within the watershed while less change and even some significant declines in vegetation are seen in moderately and sparsely vegetated sites. Sparsely vegetated sites show distinct bifurcation in their response with the lower elevations seeing declines and the upper elevations seeing increases in vegetation. Several sites show significant declines in both the visible and near infrared regions suggesting there are compositional changes taking place consistent with climate induced range shifts. This study provides a useful insight into the ecological response of the Big Pine Creek watershed to recent climate change.
This paper presents a time series study of an alpine ecosystem in the Big Pine Creek watershed in California’s Eastern Sierra Nevada Mountain’s. Seventy five sample sites along a 2,500 meter elevation gradient are analyzed for trends in surface reflectance based on vegetative density using USGS data derived from Landsat imagery for the 1984 through 2013 time frame. Three vegetative indices, NDVI, SAVI, and MSAVI2 as well as the Tasseled Cap transformations for Brightness (TCB), greenness (TCG), and wetness (TCW) are explored. We found that over the time period of the study, significant increases in vegetation are occurring at densely vegetated sites at almost all elevations within the watershed while less change and even some significant declines in vegetation are seen in moderately and sparsely vegetated sites. Sparsely vegetated sites show distinct bifurcation in their response with the lower elevations seeing declines and the upper elevations seeing increases in vegetation. Several sites show significant declines in both the visible and near infrared regions suggesting there are compositional changes taking place consistent with climate induced range shifts. This study provides a useful insight into the ecological response of the Big Pine Creek watershed to recent climate change.
Vegetative Response to Climate Change in the Big Pine Creek Watershed along a 2,500 Meter Elevation Gradient Using Landsat Data
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20140306.12
Earth Sciences
2015-01-06
© Science Publishing Group
Patrick Shawn Sawyer
Haroon Stephen
Vegetative Response to Climate Change in the Big Pine Creek Watershed along a 2,500 Meter Elevation Gradient Using Landsat Data
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146
146
2015-01-06
2015-01-06
10.11648/j.earth.20140306.12
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20140306.12
© Science Publishing Group
Hydrothermally Altered and Fractured Granite Hosting Rare Metal at Gabal Adara Adatalob, South Eastern Desert, Egypt
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2014030601.11
Gabal Adara Adatalob granite in the south Eastern Desert, Egypt represents a promising example for hydrothermally altered and fractured granite hosting rare metals and rare earths mineralization. This granite host or act as a source for the rare metals (Zr, Y, Nb, Yb and Ga) and rare earths (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, and Yb) mineralization. It forms isolated pluton crop out in the wadi Ed Direira area. It shows highly alteration and a strong enrichment in some rare metals and rare earths contents (Zr = 1434, Y = 629, Nb = 258, Ga =39, La = 262.18, Ce = 546, Pr = 71.91, Nd = 366.88, Sm = 101. 46, Yb = 8.12 ppm). Field radiometric measurements for this granite revealed that low uranium and thorium content. The radioactivity level reaches up to 10.1 ppm (eU), 24.2 ppm (eTh) respectively. The chondrite normalized rare earth elements, trends indicate strongly fractioned rare earth element pattern with significant strong enrichment in light rare earth elements rather than heavy rare earth elements.
Gabal Adara Adatalob granite in the south Eastern Desert, Egypt represents a promising example for hydrothermally altered and fractured granite hosting rare metals and rare earths mineralization. This granite host or act as a source for the rare metals (Zr, Y, Nb, Yb and Ga) and rare earths (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, and Yb) mineralization. It forms isolated pluton crop out in the wadi Ed Direira area. It shows highly alteration and a strong enrichment in some rare metals and rare earths contents (Zr = 1434, Y = 629, Nb = 258, Ga =39, La = 262.18, Ce = 546, Pr = 71.91, Nd = 366.88, Sm = 101. 46, Yb = 8.12 ppm). Field radiometric measurements for this granite revealed that low uranium and thorium content. The radioactivity level reaches up to 10.1 ppm (eU), 24.2 ppm (eTh) respectively. The chondrite normalized rare earth elements, trends indicate strongly fractioned rare earth element pattern with significant strong enrichment in light rare earth elements rather than heavy rare earth elements.
Hydrothermally Altered and Fractured Granite Hosting Rare Metal at Gabal Adara Adatalob, South Eastern Desert, Egypt
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2014030601.11
Earth Sciences
2014-09-17
© Science Publishing Group
Hassan Abd El Razek Aly Shahin
Masoud Salah Masoud
Hydrothermally Altered and Fractured Granite Hosting Rare Metal at Gabal Adara Adatalob, South Eastern Desert, Egypt
3
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7
7
2014-09-17
2014-09-17
10.11648/j.earth.s.2014030601.11
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2014030601.11
© Science Publishing Group
Palynofacies and Source Rock Potential of the ST-7H Well, Offshore Tano Basin, Western Region, Ghana
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150401.11
Samples from ST-7H well offshore Tano basin in western region of Ghana have been subjected to palynofacies, palynological and geochemical analysis. Five palynofacies associations (I – V) have been identified based on the percentage relative abundances of the sedimentary organic matter (SOM). Palynofacies type I and type IV reflects deposition in a distal dysoxic-anoxic shelf (nearshore) environment, palynofacies type II suggest distal dysoxic to anoxic shelf to deep basin environment with abundant AOM, palynofacies type III is indicative of distal dysoxic to oxic shelf (fluvio-deltaic) environment of deposition and palynofacies type V, a mud –dominated oxic distal shelf (open marine) environment. Based on marker palynomorphs, an Aptian to Maastrichtian age, have been assigned to the sediments in the ST 7H well, with an unconformity between the Cenomanian and Campanian sediments. Geochemical data indicate that the samples from ST 7H well have fair to very good petroleum potential. Most of the samples, however, fall out of the hydrocarbon generating zone because of the low (< 0.10) Production Index (PI). Kerogen types show type II, II/III and III which are oil prone, oil-gas prone and gas prone respectively. Thermal maturity from within the well indicates immature to early mature hydrocarbons.
Samples from ST-7H well offshore Tano basin in western region of Ghana have been subjected to palynofacies, palynological and geochemical analysis. Five palynofacies associations (I – V) have been identified based on the percentage relative abundances of the sedimentary organic matter (SOM). Palynofacies type I and type IV reflects deposition in a distal dysoxic-anoxic shelf (nearshore) environment, palynofacies type II suggest distal dysoxic to anoxic shelf to deep basin environment with abundant AOM, palynofacies type III is indicative of distal dysoxic to oxic shelf (fluvio-deltaic) environment of deposition and palynofacies type V, a mud –dominated oxic distal shelf (open marine) environment. Based on marker palynomorphs, an Aptian to Maastrichtian age, have been assigned to the sediments in the ST 7H well, with an unconformity between the Cenomanian and Campanian sediments. Geochemical data indicate that the samples from ST 7H well have fair to very good petroleum potential. Most of the samples, however, fall out of the hydrocarbon generating zone because of the low (< 0.10) Production Index (PI). Kerogen types show type II, II/III and III which are oil prone, oil-gas prone and gas prone respectively. Thermal maturity from within the well indicates immature to early mature hydrocarbons.
Palynofacies and Source Rock Potential of the ST-7H Well, Offshore Tano Basin, Western Region, Ghana
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20150401.11
Earth Sciences
2015-01-14
© Science Publishing Group
D. Atta-Peters
C. A. Achaegakwo
D. Kwayisi
P. Garrey
Palynofacies and Source Rock Potential of the ST-7H Well, Offshore Tano Basin, Western Region, Ghana
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2015-01-14
10.11648/j.earth.20150401.11
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150401.11
© Science Publishing Group
A 2006 Colima Rift Earthquakes Series and Its Relationship to the Rivera-Cocos Plate Boundary
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150401.12
From 31 July through 13 August 2006 a series of fourteen earthquakes (M 3.9 to 6.1) occurred in the western end of the Central Mexican Volcanic Belt (CMVB) in a twenty-five days period. The most prominent earthquake (Mw 6.1) occurred on 11 August 2006 at 14:30 UTC (9:30 local time) approximately at 18.37° N, 101.25° W and 81 km depth. The epicenter was less than 40 km from Huetamo, Michoacan a 41,250-inhabitant city and 60 km from the El Infiernillo dam embayment the third largest hydroelectric plant in Mexico. This earthquake was widely felt with minor to moderate reported damage. In Mexico City 250 km away from the epicenter the earthquake produced alarm among the population and several buildings were evacuated. The earthquakes series developed into two activity clusters one centered in the coast and separated about 300 km from a second inland cluster. The initial coastal cluster consisted of a nearly linear activity distribution, which includes shallow-depth earthquakes of reverse and normal faulting mechanisms. The inland cluster shows more compact and deeper hypocenters distribution. Earthquakes first-motion polarities indicate that ruptures occurred as a normal faulting, which is a characteristic of the CMVB earthquakes. The overall trend of earthquakes distribution shows two branches, one, along the El Gordo-Colima graben system direction (~N45°E) nearly perpendicular to the coast and another along an east-west direction parallel to the southern border of the CMVB. Our results indicate that these two branches might constitute part of the continental extension of the Rivera-Cocos plate boundary.
From 31 July through 13 August 2006 a series of fourteen earthquakes (M 3.9 to 6.1) occurred in the western end of the Central Mexican Volcanic Belt (CMVB) in a twenty-five days period. The most prominent earthquake (Mw 6.1) occurred on 11 August 2006 at 14:30 UTC (9:30 local time) approximately at 18.37° N, 101.25° W and 81 km depth. The epicenter was less than 40 km from Huetamo, Michoacan a 41,250-inhabitant city and 60 km from the El Infiernillo dam embayment the third largest hydroelectric plant in Mexico. This earthquake was widely felt with minor to moderate reported damage. In Mexico City 250 km away from the epicenter the earthquake produced alarm among the population and several buildings were evacuated. The earthquakes series developed into two activity clusters one centered in the coast and separated about 300 km from a second inland cluster. The initial coastal cluster consisted of a nearly linear activity distribution, which includes shallow-depth earthquakes of reverse and normal faulting mechanisms. The inland cluster shows more compact and deeper hypocenters distribution. Earthquakes first-motion polarities indicate that ruptures occurred as a normal faulting, which is a characteristic of the CMVB earthquakes. The overall trend of earthquakes distribution shows two branches, one, along the El Gordo-Colima graben system direction (~N45°E) nearly perpendicular to the coast and another along an east-west direction parallel to the southern border of the CMVB. Our results indicate that these two branches might constitute part of the continental extension of the Rivera-Cocos plate boundary.
A 2006 Colima Rift Earthquakes Series and Its Relationship to the Rivera-Cocos Plate Boundary
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20150401.12
Earth Sciences
2015-01-19
© Science Publishing Group
Jaime Yamamoto
Zenón Jiménez
A 2006 Colima Rift Earthquakes Series and Its Relationship to the Rivera-Cocos Plate Boundary
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2015-01-19
2015-01-19
10.11648/j.earth.20150401.12
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150401.12
© Science Publishing Group
Long-Range Anomalous Electromagnetic Effect Related to M9 Great Tohoku Earthquake
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150401.13
It is supposed that prior to a large earthquake its focus may send through the Earth lithosphere a long-range effect of strain-related to transient electric signals, which in turn give rise to geomagnetic variations propagated over a wide range of frequencies. Consequently, to confirm long-range electromagnetic anomalous effect related to the M9 Great Tohoku earthquake occurred on 11 March 2011, we retrospectively analyzed the geomagnetic data collected at three observatories placed in Japan (Memambetsu, Kakioka) and Romania (Provita de Sus). The daily mean distributions of the normalized function Bzn and its standard deviation (STDEV) for all the three observatories are performed in the ultra-low frequency range (0.001-0.016Hz) by using the FFT band-pass filter analysis. Additionally, a comparative statistical analysis, based on a standardized random variable equation, was applied to the Bzn time series to emphasize a possible pre-seismic anomalous interval and, consequently, a peak greater than 2.5∙STDEV, related to the M9 Tohoku earthquake, was identified on 5-6 February 2011. The lead time was 32 days before the earthquake occurrence. The final conclusion is that the detection area of the pre-seismic electromagnetic effect could be extended to the considerable distances from the epicenter of a giant earthquake.
It is supposed that prior to a large earthquake its focus may send through the Earth lithosphere a long-range effect of strain-related to transient electric signals, which in turn give rise to geomagnetic variations propagated over a wide range of frequencies. Consequently, to confirm long-range electromagnetic anomalous effect related to the M9 Great Tohoku earthquake occurred on 11 March 2011, we retrospectively analyzed the geomagnetic data collected at three observatories placed in Japan (Memambetsu, Kakioka) and Romania (Provita de Sus). The daily mean distributions of the normalized function Bzn and its standard deviation (STDEV) for all the three observatories are performed in the ultra-low frequency range (0.001-0.016Hz) by using the FFT band-pass filter analysis. Additionally, a comparative statistical analysis, based on a standardized random variable equation, was applied to the Bzn time series to emphasize a possible pre-seismic anomalous interval and, consequently, a peak greater than 2.5∙STDEV, related to the M9 Tohoku earthquake, was identified on 5-6 February 2011. The lead time was 32 days before the earthquake occurrence. The final conclusion is that the detection area of the pre-seismic electromagnetic effect could be extended to the considerable distances from the epicenter of a giant earthquake.
Long-Range Anomalous Electromagnetic Effect Related to M9 Great Tohoku Earthquake
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20150401.13
Earth Sciences
2015-01-26
© Science Publishing Group
Dragos Armand Stanica
Dumitru Stanica
Nicoleta Vladimirescu
Long-Range Anomalous Electromagnetic Effect Related to M9 Great Tohoku Earthquake
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2015-01-26
2015-01-26
10.11648/j.earth.20150401.13
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150401.13
© Science Publishing Group
Modeling Ecotourism Potentials of Karst Springs in GIS Environment: A Case Study of Rijab Mirage in Kermanshah Province, Iran
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150401.14
Mirages of Kermanshah province of Iran including Rijab mirage, with unique features such specific animal and plant species, very suitable climate , roaring waterfalls and etc. currently, as a ecotourism region is used by so Many people And has the capacity to become an ecotourism zone in the province and the country. In this research for feasibility of ecotourism development in mentioned area, first in the identification process, ecologically sustainable sources including vegetation cover, soil, geology and geomorphology has been identified And then in summarization and analysis step data obtained from the previous step, were processed and classified to enter in GIS environment; land surveying was conducted and then it combined with soil map and vegetation cover maps, ecological unit map, which is the base of ecological assessment, is obtained. Unsustainable resources such as water, climate and etc. were also considered.
Mirages of Kermanshah province of Iran including Rijab mirage, with unique features such specific animal and plant species, very suitable climate , roaring waterfalls and etc. currently, as a ecotourism region is used by so Many people And has the capacity to become an ecotourism zone in the province and the country. In this research for feasibility of ecotourism development in mentioned area, first in the identification process, ecologically sustainable sources including vegetation cover, soil, geology and geomorphology has been identified And then in summarization and analysis step data obtained from the previous step, were processed and classified to enter in GIS environment; land surveying was conducted and then it combined with soil map and vegetation cover maps, ecological unit map, which is the base of ecological assessment, is obtained. Unsustainable resources such as water, climate and etc. were also considered.
Modeling Ecotourism Potentials of Karst Springs in GIS Environment: A Case Study of Rijab Mirage in Kermanshah Province, Iran
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20150401.14
Earth Sciences
2015-01-28
© Science Publishing Group
Behrouz Nasiri
Mostafa Karampoor
Parsa Gholami
Shoaib Abkharabat
Siamak Ahmadi
Modeling Ecotourism Potentials of Karst Springs in GIS Environment: A Case Study of Rijab Mirage in Kermanshah Province, Iran
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2015-01-28
2015-01-28
10.11648/j.earth.20150401.14
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150401.14
© Science Publishing Group
The Neotectonic Activity Along the Lower Khazir River by Using SRTM Image and Geomorphic Indices
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150401.15
Lower Khazir River is crossing three mountains (Maqlub , Ain Al-Safra, and Makhmoore) and it is adjustment to the neotectonic activity by fold. During the study evaluate active tectonics by using DEM derived drainage network and geomorphic indices stream-length gradient (SL), basin asymmetry factor (AF), hypsometric integral (HI), valley floor width to valley height ratio (Vf), Basin shape (Bs) and mountain front sinuosity (Smf). Geomorphic indices are calculate (IRAT) in the study site. So I classified the IRAT index into very higher, higher, modern and lower active of tectonic. The value of very higher is in sub basin 1 and 18 , higher is in sub basin 6, 10, 14 and 17 , modern is in sub basin 2,3,4, 5 ,7 , 9 ,16 and 19; and lower is in sub basin 8,11,12,13 and 15. About 10.5% of the study area (about 29.87) km2): 21% (111.63 km2) to Class 2: 42% (312.59 km2) to Class 3 and 26.5% (133.75 km2) to Class 4. IRAT tends to be high along the fold and fault zone. Two different levels of the rock are found in the study site (middle hard and soft rock).
Lower Khazir River is crossing three mountains (Maqlub , Ain Al-Safra, and Makhmoore) and it is adjustment to the neotectonic activity by fold. During the study evaluate active tectonics by using DEM derived drainage network and geomorphic indices stream-length gradient (SL), basin asymmetry factor (AF), hypsometric integral (HI), valley floor width to valley height ratio (Vf), Basin shape (Bs) and mountain front sinuosity (Smf). Geomorphic indices are calculate (IRAT) in the study site. So I classified the IRAT index into very higher, higher, modern and lower active of tectonic. The value of very higher is in sub basin 1 and 18 , higher is in sub basin 6, 10, 14 and 17 , modern is in sub basin 2,3,4, 5 ,7 , 9 ,16 and 19; and lower is in sub basin 8,11,12,13 and 15. About 10.5% of the study area (about 29.87) km2): 21% (111.63 km2) to Class 2: 42% (312.59 km2) to Class 3 and 26.5% (133.75 km2) to Class 4. IRAT tends to be high along the fold and fault zone. Two different levels of the rock are found in the study site (middle hard and soft rock).
The Neotectonic Activity Along the Lower Khazir River by Using SRTM Image and Geomorphic Indices
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20150401.15
Earth Sciences
2015-02-15
© Science Publishing Group
Ziyad Elias
The Neotectonic Activity Along the Lower Khazir River by Using SRTM Image and Geomorphic Indices
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2015-02-15
2015-02-15
10.11648/j.earth.20150401.15
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150401.15
© Science Publishing Group
Global Mid-Ocean Ridges Mantle Tomography Profiles
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150402.13
We have studied mantle tomography profiles of global mid-ocean ridges to investigate their depth of origin and other characteristics. The Mid-Atlantic and the South West Indian Ridges are deep rooted ridges that extend as far down in the mantle to 250-300 km. The Central Indian Ridge, South East Indian Ridge, Antarctica Nazca, Pacific Antarctica, Pacific Nazca and Juan de Fuca are shallow rooted ridges that extend down in the mantle only to 100 km. The deep rooted ridges appear to be characterized by a weak low velocity ridge anomaly while the shallow rooted ridges are characterized by strong low velocity ridge anomaly. This may be due to the variations of the geochemistry of the ridges due to the fractionation process during magma ascent. Furthermore, despite the three ridges that make the Indian Rodriguez Triple Junction having different characteristics, all the three sections of the ridges that make the Triple Junction are characterized by strong low velocity ridge anomaly and extended down to only 100 km. This is particularly typical for the length of nine to ten degrees from the Triple Junction which makes it appear as an independent system.
We have studied mantle tomography profiles of global mid-ocean ridges to investigate their depth of origin and other characteristics. The Mid-Atlantic and the South West Indian Ridges are deep rooted ridges that extend as far down in the mantle to 250-300 km. The Central Indian Ridge, South East Indian Ridge, Antarctica Nazca, Pacific Antarctica, Pacific Nazca and Juan de Fuca are shallow rooted ridges that extend down in the mantle only to 100 km. The deep rooted ridges appear to be characterized by a weak low velocity ridge anomaly while the shallow rooted ridges are characterized by strong low velocity ridge anomaly. This may be due to the variations of the geochemistry of the ridges due to the fractionation process during magma ascent. Furthermore, despite the three ridges that make the Indian Rodriguez Triple Junction having different characteristics, all the three sections of the ridges that make the Triple Junction are characterized by strong low velocity ridge anomaly and extended down to only 100 km. This is particularly typical for the length of nine to ten degrees from the Triple Junction which makes it appear as an independent system.
Global Mid-Ocean Ridges Mantle Tomography Profiles
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20150402.13
Earth Sciences
2015-04-10
© Science Publishing Group
Desiderius Cyril Patrick Masalu
Global Mid-Ocean Ridges Mantle Tomography Profiles
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2015-04-10
2015-04-10
10.11648/j.earth.20150402.13
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150402.13
© Science Publishing Group
Calcareous Nannofossils Boistratigraphy and Paleoecology of the Late Paleocene/Early Eocene of Wadi Nukhul, Westcentral Sinai, Egypt
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150402.11
The calcareous nannofossil biozones NP7/8 through NP12 were identified from the Esna and base of the Thebes formations at Wadi Nukhul, westcentral Sinai. The Subzone NP9a spans the lower part of Esna Formation. The Zone NP10 is easily differentiated into 4 subzones (a-d). The NP9/NP10 zonal boundary can be identified at the level of increase frequency of Neochiastozygus junctus. Zone NP11 occupies the topmost part of the Esna Formation and the base of the Thebes Formation indicating conformable relation between them. The Paleocene/Eocene boundary is traced between the NP9a/NP9b subzonal boundary which is marked by the first- appearances of Rhomboaster spp. It is located at the basal part of the Esna Formation and conforms lithologic change from blackish calcareous shale to brown calcarenite. On the basis of nannofossils, the Paleocene Eocene Thermal maximum (PETM) interval can be divided into two parts (lower and upper). The major assemblage shift across the P/E boundary suggests a change from colder, more productive surface waters to warmer, more oligotrophic conditions. Above the PETM interval, the niche of Fasciculithus spp. was filled by Neochiastozygus juncts and Rhabdolithus solus, the cooler and more eutrophic taxa.
The calcareous nannofossil biozones NP7/8 through NP12 were identified from the Esna and base of the Thebes formations at Wadi Nukhul, westcentral Sinai. The Subzone NP9a spans the lower part of Esna Formation. The Zone NP10 is easily differentiated into 4 subzones (a-d). The NP9/NP10 zonal boundary can be identified at the level of increase frequency of Neochiastozygus junctus. Zone NP11 occupies the topmost part of the Esna Formation and the base of the Thebes Formation indicating conformable relation between them. The Paleocene/Eocene boundary is traced between the NP9a/NP9b subzonal boundary which is marked by the first- appearances of Rhomboaster spp. It is located at the basal part of the Esna Formation and conforms lithologic change from blackish calcareous shale to brown calcarenite. On the basis of nannofossils, the Paleocene Eocene Thermal maximum (PETM) interval can be divided into two parts (lower and upper). The major assemblage shift across the P/E boundary suggests a change from colder, more productive surface waters to warmer, more oligotrophic conditions. Above the PETM interval, the niche of Fasciculithus spp. was filled by Neochiastozygus juncts and Rhabdolithus solus, the cooler and more eutrophic taxa.
Calcareous Nannofossils Boistratigraphy and Paleoecology of the Late Paleocene/Early Eocene of Wadi Nukhul, Westcentral Sinai, Egypt
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20150402.11
Earth Sciences
2015-03-14
© Science Publishing Group
Khaled A. Al Wosabi
Calcareous Nannofossils Boistratigraphy and Paleoecology of the Late Paleocene/Early Eocene of Wadi Nukhul, Westcentral Sinai, Egypt
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71
71
2015-03-14
2015-03-14
10.11648/j.earth.20150402.11
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150402.11
© Science Publishing Group
Glaciers Retreat and Climate Change Effect During the Last One Century in the Mestiachala River Basin, Caucasus Mountains, Georgia
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150402.12
The dynamics of glaciers of Mestiachala river basin for the last century is revised in the paper. The percentage shrinking of areas of compound valley glaciers with the relation of air temperature is given. The retreat of largest glacier of Georgia Lekhziri and shrinking of its area is revised according to the years. The height gradient and correlation between the air temperature data of the only meteorological station (Mestia) of region and air temperature data of the glacier Chalaati in 2011 is determined. The time series of air temperature for Chalaati glacier in 1906-2011 are restored by the using of transfer function. The surface ablation of Chalaati glacier is also calculated. During the study we used a 1:42 000 scale topographic maps of the 19th century, which were drawn up during the first topographic survey by using the plane-table surveying method. Also, we used the catalog of the glaciers of the southern slope of the Caucasus compiled in 1911 by a well-known researcher of the Caucasus K. Podozerskiy, which is drawn up on the basis of the 19th century maps. In order to identify the area and number of the glaciers of the 60s of the 20th century, we used the work of R. Gobejishvili – the Georgian glaciologist of the 20-21st centuries, composed on the basis of 1:50 000 scale topographic maps of 1960. The data of 2014 have been obtained by the Landsat aerial images of L5 TM (Thematic Mapper) taken in August 2014. In the mentioned study, except of the old topographic maps and aerial images we use the climate information of the Mestia weather station.
The dynamics of glaciers of Mestiachala river basin for the last century is revised in the paper. The percentage shrinking of areas of compound valley glaciers with the relation of air temperature is given. The retreat of largest glacier of Georgia Lekhziri and shrinking of its area is revised according to the years. The height gradient and correlation between the air temperature data of the only meteorological station (Mestia) of region and air temperature data of the glacier Chalaati in 2011 is determined. The time series of air temperature for Chalaati glacier in 1906-2011 are restored by the using of transfer function. The surface ablation of Chalaati glacier is also calculated. During the study we used a 1:42 000 scale topographic maps of the 19th century, which were drawn up during the first topographic survey by using the plane-table surveying method. Also, we used the catalog of the glaciers of the southern slope of the Caucasus compiled in 1911 by a well-known researcher of the Caucasus K. Podozerskiy, which is drawn up on the basis of the 19th century maps. In order to identify the area and number of the glaciers of the 60s of the 20th century, we used the work of R. Gobejishvili – the Georgian glaciologist of the 20-21st centuries, composed on the basis of 1:50 000 scale topographic maps of 1960. The data of 2014 have been obtained by the Landsat aerial images of L5 TM (Thematic Mapper) taken in August 2014. In the mentioned study, except of the old topographic maps and aerial images we use the climate information of the Mestia weather station.
Glaciers Retreat and Climate Change Effect During the Last One Century in the Mestiachala River Basin, Caucasus Mountains, Georgia
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20150402.12
Earth Sciences
2015-03-31
© Science Publishing Group
Levan G. Tielidze
Nino Lomidze
Lasha Asanidze
Glaciers Retreat and Climate Change Effect During the Last One Century in the Mestiachala River Basin, Caucasus Mountains, Georgia
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2015-03-31
2015-03-31
10.11648/j.earth.20150402.12
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150402.12
© Science Publishing Group
Displacement Fields of Sedimentary Layers Controlled by Fault Parameters: The Discrete Element Method of Controlling Basement Motions by Dislocation Solutions
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150403.11
In the two-dimensional discrete element modeling of displacement of sedimentary layers caused by faulting within the basement, we attempted to move a rigid basement as if it were an elastic basement by controlling its motion through application of dislocation solutions. An advantage of our modeling procedure is that we can discuss displacement fields of sedimentary layers in connection with fault parameters. We simulated displacement fields of the sedimentary layers by means of our modeling procedure and found that our simulated fields are different from the fields obtained in rigid basement models and are dependent on the selected fault parameters.
In the two-dimensional discrete element modeling of displacement of sedimentary layers caused by faulting within the basement, we attempted to move a rigid basement as if it were an elastic basement by controlling its motion through application of dislocation solutions. An advantage of our modeling procedure is that we can discuss displacement fields of sedimentary layers in connection with fault parameters. We simulated displacement fields of the sedimentary layers by means of our modeling procedure and found that our simulated fields are different from the fields obtained in rigid basement models and are dependent on the selected fault parameters.
Displacement Fields of Sedimentary Layers Controlled by Fault Parameters: The Discrete Element Method of Controlling Basement Motions by Dislocation Solutions
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20150403.11
Earth Sciences
2015-05-09
© Science Publishing Group
Shigekazu Kusumoto
Yasuto Itoh
Keiji Takemura
Tomotaka Iwata
Displacement Fields of Sedimentary Layers Controlled by Fault Parameters: The Discrete Element Method of Controlling Basement Motions by Dislocation Solutions
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2015-05-09
2015-05-09
10.11648/j.earth.20150403.11
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150403.11
© Science Publishing Group
Some Characteristics of Seismic Activity in the Song Tranh 2 Reservoir, Quang Nam, Vietnam by Local Seismic Network Data
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150403.13
The Song Tranh 2 hydropower construction is located in the Quang Nam province (central Vietnam), it has a reservoir volume of 740 million cubic meters of water and a dam height of 96 m. The reservoir was filled to capacity for the first time in February 2011 to about 160m, then it dropped to 140 m in July 2011. The filling of reservoir started again in August 2011 and the maximum water level of 175 m was reached in October 2011. Song Tranh 2 and its surrounding regions suffered from earthquakes in March 2011, it also suffered from a higher magnitude earthquake in October and November, 2012 of M=4.6 and 4.7 respectively. By the end of 2012, a seismic network including 6 stations was set up around the Song Tranh 2 reservoir area and a full network of 10 stations was set up by August 2013. The final seismic network is capable of detecting and locating weaker seismic earthquakes. It is also possible to calculate the extended source parameters like focal mechanism, slip direction etc. In the period from August 2013 to May 2014 about 2000 seismic events were detected, and 359 of them were localized and magnitudes were calculated. Seismic analysis and update catalogues are currently being conducted. The LocSAT application was used to locate events, to perform hypocentral inversion of the phase arrival data, to estimate the origin time, epicentral location, and depth by registered data from the VERIS network. Mechanism solutions with P-wave amplitude inversion of three events were determined. It suggests that reservoir construction is a major factor in the seismogenic process.
The Song Tranh 2 hydropower construction is located in the Quang Nam province (central Vietnam), it has a reservoir volume of 740 million cubic meters of water and a dam height of 96 m. The reservoir was filled to capacity for the first time in February 2011 to about 160m, then it dropped to 140 m in July 2011. The filling of reservoir started again in August 2011 and the maximum water level of 175 m was reached in October 2011. Song Tranh 2 and its surrounding regions suffered from earthquakes in March 2011, it also suffered from a higher magnitude earthquake in October and November, 2012 of M=4.6 and 4.7 respectively. By the end of 2012, a seismic network including 6 stations was set up around the Song Tranh 2 reservoir area and a full network of 10 stations was set up by August 2013. The final seismic network is capable of detecting and locating weaker seismic earthquakes. It is also possible to calculate the extended source parameters like focal mechanism, slip direction etc. In the period from August 2013 to May 2014 about 2000 seismic events were detected, and 359 of them were localized and magnitudes were calculated. Seismic analysis and update catalogues are currently being conducted. The LocSAT application was used to locate events, to perform hypocentral inversion of the phase arrival data, to estimate the origin time, epicentral location, and depth by registered data from the VERIS network. Mechanism solutions with P-wave amplitude inversion of three events were determined. It suggests that reservoir construction is a major factor in the seismogenic process.
Some Characteristics of Seismic Activity in the Song Tranh 2 Reservoir, Quang Nam, Vietnam by Local Seismic Network Data
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20150403.13
Earth Sciences
2015-06-02
© Science Publishing Group
Nguyen Van Giang
Jan Wiszniowski
Beata Plesiewicz
Grzegorz Lizurek
Dinh Quoc Van
Le Quang Khoi
Some Characteristics of Seismic Activity in the Song Tranh 2 Reservoir, Quang Nam, Vietnam by Local Seismic Network Data
4
3
111
111
2015-06-02
2015-06-02
10.11648/j.earth.20150403.13
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150403.13
© Science Publishing Group
Ethiopian Seasonal Rainfall Variability and Prediction Using Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA)
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150403.14
Because Ethiopia’s economy is mainly dependent on rain-fed agriculture, the failure or the goodness of seasonal rainfall is incredibly decisive the country’s socio economic functioning- in particular, food production. As a result, the reliable seasonal rainfall prediction would have several advantages for agricultural activities, water management, health (Malaria control) and drought related disaster mitigation. In this paper an attempt is made to study the variability and predictability of two Ethiopian rainy seasons using statistical methods. Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA) applied to analyze and predict seasonal rainfall over Ethiopia using global sea surface temperature (SST) predictor data and historical monthly total Ethiopian rainfall and merged both satellite and rain gauge rainfall data predictand data. It is found that in general, ENSO is the main source of predictive skill for Ethiopian seasonal rainfall. This is the case for both the Belg (small rainy season) from February to May and Kiremt (main rainy season) from June to September, during which other, more regional SST in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean also contribute. The objective approach provided by the CAA approach resulted in higher mean skill than the more subjective methods used traditionally by the Ethiopian National Meteorological Agency (NMA) since the late 1980’s.
Because Ethiopia’s economy is mainly dependent on rain-fed agriculture, the failure or the goodness of seasonal rainfall is incredibly decisive the country’s socio economic functioning- in particular, food production. As a result, the reliable seasonal rainfall prediction would have several advantages for agricultural activities, water management, health (Malaria control) and drought related disaster mitigation. In this paper an attempt is made to study the variability and predictability of two Ethiopian rainy seasons using statistical methods. Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA) applied to analyze and predict seasonal rainfall over Ethiopia using global sea surface temperature (SST) predictor data and historical monthly total Ethiopian rainfall and merged both satellite and rain gauge rainfall data predictand data. It is found that in general, ENSO is the main source of predictive skill for Ethiopian seasonal rainfall. This is the case for both the Belg (small rainy season) from February to May and Kiremt (main rainy season) from June to September, during which other, more regional SST in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean also contribute. The objective approach provided by the CAA approach resulted in higher mean skill than the more subjective methods used traditionally by the Ethiopian National Meteorological Agency (NMA) since the late 1980’s.
Ethiopian Seasonal Rainfall Variability and Prediction Using Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA)
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20150403.14
Earth Sciences
2015-06-06
© Science Publishing Group
Kassa Fekadu
Ethiopian Seasonal Rainfall Variability and Prediction Using Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA)
4
3
119
119
2015-06-06
2015-06-06
10.11648/j.earth.20150403.14
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150403.14
© Science Publishing Group
Effect of Climate Change on Crop Production in Rwanda
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150403.15
For Africa’s developing countries the agricultural system is among the most vulnerable due to extensive use of rainfed crop production, presence of droughts and floods that affect crops as well as initial poverty of population that limits the capacity to adapt. In this study were realized the analysis of long-term rainfall data and its impact on main crop products in Rwanda. Some rainfall data was infilled for the period of 1926-2013. It was done using the monitoring data of a neighbor weather station with relatively the same elevation above sea level and with a monitoring record of no less than 40 years. The neighboring station with the best correlation was selected for the infilling. The missing rainfall data was infilled for all the stations with resulting regression coefficients ranging from 0.55 to 0.80. This indicates the acceptability of the performed regression. Also were constructed different-cumulative curves of rainfall and sort out cycles of decline and increment of rainfall. Similar different-cumulative curves were constructed for main crops in Rwanda. Correlation and regression analysis were used to determine the relationship between rainfall, arable land expansion, fertilizer use and crop yield. Particularly for Rwandan conditions, the rainfall variations are determinant for the crop yield increment. The intensification of extreme flood’s and, as rule, flooding of agricultural lands in connection with rainfall augmentation was also allocated.
For Africa’s developing countries the agricultural system is among the most vulnerable due to extensive use of rainfed crop production, presence of droughts and floods that affect crops as well as initial poverty of population that limits the capacity to adapt. In this study were realized the analysis of long-term rainfall data and its impact on main crop products in Rwanda. Some rainfall data was infilled for the period of 1926-2013. It was done using the monitoring data of a neighbor weather station with relatively the same elevation above sea level and with a monitoring record of no less than 40 years. The neighboring station with the best correlation was selected for the infilling. The missing rainfall data was infilled for all the stations with resulting regression coefficients ranging from 0.55 to 0.80. This indicates the acceptability of the performed regression. Also were constructed different-cumulative curves of rainfall and sort out cycles of decline and increment of rainfall. Similar different-cumulative curves were constructed for main crops in Rwanda. Correlation and regression analysis were used to determine the relationship between rainfall, arable land expansion, fertilizer use and crop yield. Particularly for Rwandan conditions, the rainfall variations are determinant for the crop yield increment. The intensification of extreme flood’s and, as rule, flooding of agricultural lands in connection with rainfall augmentation was also allocated.
Effect of Climate Change on Crop Production in Rwanda
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20150403.15
Earth Sciences
2015-06-12
© Science Publishing Group
Kseniia Mikova
Enock Makupa
John Kayumba
Effect of Climate Change on Crop Production in Rwanda
4
3
128
128
2015-06-12
2015-06-12
10.11648/j.earth.20150403.15
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150403.15
© Science Publishing Group
Prediction of Temperature and Precipitation in Damavand Catchment in Iran by Using LARS –WG in Future
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150403.12
In recent years the issue of climate change and its effects on various aspects of the environment has become one of the challenges facing planners. It is desirable to analyze and predict the change of critical climatic variables, such as temperature and precipitation, which will provide valuable reference results for future water resources planning and management in the region. The aims of this study are to test the applicability of the Long Ashton Research Station Weather Generator (LARS-WG) model in downscaling daily precipitation and daily maximum (Tmax) and daily minimum (Tmin) temperatures in Damavand catchment in Iran and use it to predict future changes of precipitation and temperature. Future climate of the Damavand catchment is predicted by statistical downscaling outputs from General Circulation Models (GCMs) (HADCM3 for SRES A2 and B2 and A1B scenarios) for the period of 2046–2065.The results showed that the LARS-WG model produces excellent performance in downscaling Tmax and Tmin in the study region but compared to temperature, the model showed more error in downscaling daily precipitation. This issue was confirmed by examining the performance indicators including coefficient of determination, mean absolute error and root-mean square error. Also results showed that precipitation will decrease in future under these scenarios but temperature will increase. Findings of this study will serve as a reference for further studies and planning of future water management strategies in the Damavand catchment.
In recent years the issue of climate change and its effects on various aspects of the environment has become one of the challenges facing planners. It is desirable to analyze and predict the change of critical climatic variables, such as temperature and precipitation, which will provide valuable reference results for future water resources planning and management in the region. The aims of this study are to test the applicability of the Long Ashton Research Station Weather Generator (LARS-WG) model in downscaling daily precipitation and daily maximum (Tmax) and daily minimum (Tmin) temperatures in Damavand catchment in Iran and use it to predict future changes of precipitation and temperature. Future climate of the Damavand catchment is predicted by statistical downscaling outputs from General Circulation Models (GCMs) (HADCM3 for SRES A2 and B2 and A1B scenarios) for the period of 2046–2065.The results showed that the LARS-WG model produces excellent performance in downscaling Tmax and Tmin in the study region but compared to temperature, the model showed more error in downscaling daily precipitation. This issue was confirmed by examining the performance indicators including coefficient of determination, mean absolute error and root-mean square error. Also results showed that precipitation will decrease in future under these scenarios but temperature will increase. Findings of this study will serve as a reference for further studies and planning of future water management strategies in the Damavand catchment.
Prediction of Temperature and Precipitation in Damavand Catchment in Iran by Using LARS –WG in Future
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20150403.12
Earth Sciences
2015-05-21
© Science Publishing Group
Sepideh Karimi
Saeed Karimi
Ahmad Reza Yavari
Mohamad Hosein Niksokhan
Prediction of Temperature and Precipitation in Damavand Catchment in Iran by Using LARS –WG in Future
4
3
100
100
2015-05-21
2015-05-21
10.11648/j.earth.20150403.12
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150403.12
© Science Publishing Group
Vanishing Taxus baccata L. Due to Unsustainable Exploitation and Climate Change in West Kameng and Tawang Districts of Arunachal Pradesh
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040301.12
Taxus baccata, a small to medium sized tree is valuable for extraction of taxol which is used in preparation of anti-cancer drugs (breast and ovarian cancer), kaposi’s sarcoma (an AIDS related cancer) and over 20 such other indications. The plant is rare, endangered and listed in Appendix II of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) showing widespread decline in population and increasing fragmentation worldwide. Around 2 to 3 million kg of biomass is harvested annually where as the sustainable rate of harvesting is estimated to be 0.6 million kg per year. It grows at an altitudinal range of 1500 to 3000 m throughout Arunachal Pradesh in Bomdila, Shergaon, Eagle Nest, Dirang, Thungri, Tawang, Mago and Zemithang in West Kameng and Tawang Districts, Tale Valley (few trees only) of Lower Subansiri, Anini, Mayodiya in Dibang Valley district, Mechuka in West Siang and Melinja and Hot spring areas of Lohit District. Random linear transacts in West Kameng and Tawang districts of Arunachal Pradesh recorded a total of 265 Taxus plants. Out of which, 130 are live trees and 135 are dead plants. In the absence of standard lopping technique and non-existence of any regulatory mechanisms for sustainable harvest, the leaves were pruned mercilessly to the extent that plant could not withstand to survive. Moreover, the pressing demands and associated lucrative price lured middlemen and villagers to plunder this scarce resource pushing it to the extreme limits of disappearance. The interaction with the villagers revealed that about 100 trucks of Taxus leaves were supplied each from villages of the area. Thus, around 1000 full grown trees have been completely pruned from the area before the ban imposed by the Supreme Court of India in 1996. The results point towards unsustainable and unorganized way of exploitation of the plant in the eastern Himalayas during the recent past. Although Taxus baccata is known to be tolerant to shade, high temperature and low moisture stress but the sudden and unlikely changes in climatic variables may cause both positive and negative impacts on the future of the plant. Hence, the paper attempts to discuss the impact of unsustainable exploitation as well as climate change and suggest suitable strategies for conservation and modeling of this rare and endangered medicinal plant in the study area.
Taxus baccata, a small to medium sized tree is valuable for extraction of taxol which is used in preparation of anti-cancer drugs (breast and ovarian cancer), kaposi’s sarcoma (an AIDS related cancer) and over 20 such other indications. The plant is rare, endangered and listed in Appendix II of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) showing widespread decline in population and increasing fragmentation worldwide. Around 2 to 3 million kg of biomass is harvested annually where as the sustainable rate of harvesting is estimated to be 0.6 million kg per year. It grows at an altitudinal range of 1500 to 3000 m throughout Arunachal Pradesh in Bomdila, Shergaon, Eagle Nest, Dirang, Thungri, Tawang, Mago and Zemithang in West Kameng and Tawang Districts, Tale Valley (few trees only) of Lower Subansiri, Anini, Mayodiya in Dibang Valley district, Mechuka in West Siang and Melinja and Hot spring areas of Lohit District. Random linear transacts in West Kameng and Tawang districts of Arunachal Pradesh recorded a total of 265 Taxus plants. Out of which, 130 are live trees and 135 are dead plants. In the absence of standard lopping technique and non-existence of any regulatory mechanisms for sustainable harvest, the leaves were pruned mercilessly to the extent that plant could not withstand to survive. Moreover, the pressing demands and associated lucrative price lured middlemen and villagers to plunder this scarce resource pushing it to the extreme limits of disappearance. The interaction with the villagers revealed that about 100 trucks of Taxus leaves were supplied each from villages of the area. Thus, around 1000 full grown trees have been completely pruned from the area before the ban imposed by the Supreme Court of India in 1996. The results point towards unsustainable and unorganized way of exploitation of the plant in the eastern Himalayas during the recent past. Although Taxus baccata is known to be tolerant to shade, high temperature and low moisture stress but the sudden and unlikely changes in climatic variables may cause both positive and negative impacts on the future of the plant. Hence, the paper attempts to discuss the impact of unsustainable exploitation as well as climate change and suggest suitable strategies for conservation and modeling of this rare and endangered medicinal plant in the study area.
Vanishing Taxus baccata L. Due to Unsustainable Exploitation and Climate Change in West Kameng and Tawang Districts of Arunachal Pradesh
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040301.12
Earth Sciences
2015-03-03
© Science Publishing Group
Gibji Nimasow
Oyi Dai Nimasow
Gendan Tsering
Vanishing Taxus baccata L. Due to Unsustainable Exploitation and Climate Change in West Kameng and Tawang Districts of Arunachal Pradesh
4
3
18
18
2015-03-03
2015-03-03
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040301.12
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040301.12
© Science Publishing Group
Conservation Efforts of an Important Medicinal Plant (Taxus baccata Linn.) in West Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh (India)
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040301.11
Taxus is a small to medium sized tree, with red ‘berries’ (seed covered by arils), valuable for taxol or paclitaxel extraction used in the preparation of anti-cancer drugs (breast cancer and ovarian cancer), kaposi’s sarcoma (an AIDS related cancer) and over 20 such other indications. It is an evergreen tree found in the temperate forests with an altitude ranging between 1500 m to 3000 m. The worldwide demand of the taxol is 800–1000 kg annually. Around 2 to 3 million kg of biomass is harvested annually where as the sustainable rate of harvesting is estimated to be 0.6 million kg per year. Although, the endophytes isolated from the Taxus when cultured in the medium are found to grow taxol, but the rate is very low. The maximum occurrence and high exploitation of Taxus has been reported from West Kameng district of Arunahal Pradesh, until the prohibition on its export through listing under Negative Lists of Exports by Government of India in 1996. Random linear transacts in the deep forests recorded a total of 145 Taxus plants. Out of which, 105 are dead trees and only 38 are live plants. Among the 38 live plants 20 are seedlings, 14 are saplings and 4 are full grown trees – one each near Sanglem and New Bomdila and another two between Ramda and Palizi. Therefore, conservation efforts like workshops, seminars, talks, distribution of pamphlets, pasting of posters and mass plantation has been organized by involving the villagers. The study attempts to explore the current status of Taxus in the aftermath of large scale trade occurred during 1990s and generate community awareness for conservation and regeneration of the important medicinal plant.
Taxus is a small to medium sized tree, with red ‘berries’ (seed covered by arils), valuable for taxol or paclitaxel extraction used in the preparation of anti-cancer drugs (breast cancer and ovarian cancer), kaposi’s sarcoma (an AIDS related cancer) and over 20 such other indications. It is an evergreen tree found in the temperate forests with an altitude ranging between 1500 m to 3000 m. The worldwide demand of the taxol is 800–1000 kg annually. Around 2 to 3 million kg of biomass is harvested annually where as the sustainable rate of harvesting is estimated to be 0.6 million kg per year. Although, the endophytes isolated from the Taxus when cultured in the medium are found to grow taxol, but the rate is very low. The maximum occurrence and high exploitation of Taxus has been reported from West Kameng district of Arunahal Pradesh, until the prohibition on its export through listing under Negative Lists of Exports by Government of India in 1996. Random linear transacts in the deep forests recorded a total of 145 Taxus plants. Out of which, 105 are dead trees and only 38 are live plants. Among the 38 live plants 20 are seedlings, 14 are saplings and 4 are full grown trees – one each near Sanglem and New Bomdila and another two between Ramda and Palizi. Therefore, conservation efforts like workshops, seminars, talks, distribution of pamphlets, pasting of posters and mass plantation has been organized by involving the villagers. The study attempts to explore the current status of Taxus in the aftermath of large scale trade occurred during 1990s and generate community awareness for conservation and regeneration of the important medicinal plant.
Conservation Efforts of an Important Medicinal Plant (Taxus baccata Linn.) in West Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh (India)
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040301.11
Earth Sciences
2015-03-03
© Science Publishing Group
Gibji Nimasow
Oyi Dai Nimasow
Jawan Singh Rawat
Leki Norbu
Conservation Efforts of an Important Medicinal Plant (Taxus baccata Linn.) in West Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh (India)
4
3
10
10
2015-03-03
2015-03-03
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040301.11
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040301.11
© Science Publishing Group
Taxus globosa Schltdl. (Taxaceae). Distribution and Diagnosis of an Endangered Yew
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040301.13
After prospecting the vast majority of the populations and consulting herbarium collections and literature, data of distribution and demography of the Mexican populations of Taxus globosa is presented. Besides, the global distribution as the status of the species and its ecology is reviewed. Some populations are well preserved, however most of the prospected populations are under risk of anthropogenic disturbances. No real direct use of the species is performed, but other activities put pressure in their very small populations. With the data compiled, a preliminary diagnosis of its natural state is exposed towards the management and conservation of the species.
After prospecting the vast majority of the populations and consulting herbarium collections and literature, data of distribution and demography of the Mexican populations of Taxus globosa is presented. Besides, the global distribution as the status of the species and its ecology is reviewed. Some populations are well preserved, however most of the prospected populations are under risk of anthropogenic disturbances. No real direct use of the species is performed, but other activities put pressure in their very small populations. With the data compiled, a preliminary diagnosis of its natural state is exposed towards the management and conservation of the species.
Taxus globosa Schltdl. (Taxaceae). Distribution and Diagnosis of an Endangered Yew
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040301.13
Earth Sciences
2015-04-28
© Science Publishing Group
Javier López-Upton
Xavier Garcia-Martí
Taxus globosa Schltdl. (Taxaceae). Distribution and Diagnosis of an Endangered Yew
4
3
88
88
2015-04-28
2015-04-28
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040301.13
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040301.13
© Science Publishing Group
Trend of Mineral Commodity Price and its Impact on the Indonesia Economy 1990-2025
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150404.11
Indonesia is one of the mineral rich developing countries in the world. Indonesia has a large quantity of mineral resources such as natural oil and gas, hard minerals (metallic, non metallic/industrial mineral, coal, and stone), because it is located in the Pacific ring of fire. Mineral and energy commodities have always been giving contribution to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Indonesia besides doing regional development, because of its potential mineral resources. Trade of mineral commodity aims is to gain from trade of mineral to increase economic growth through Balance of Trade (BOT). Mineral commodity markets have been volatile for a long time. The trends of mineral commodity prices have been fluctuated and recently it changed dramatically due to commodity prices to increase within only several years. The aims of this study are to comprehend recent contribution of mining sector to Indonesian economy 1990-2014 and to analyze forecasting of mineral commodity future prices until 2025. The price trends of commodity mineral is increasing from time to time, but sometimes decreasing because of world crisis, scarcity, and other problems in the world related to mining, trade, and relationship between countries, such as fundamentals matter, including long-run demand growth, technical change that opens up new sources of supply, changes that transform the operation of financial markets, and macro-economic shocks, etc. Mining sector contribute about 6-12% of Indonesian Gross Domestic Product and increasing from time to time. Contribution of mining includes trade of mineral commodity, regional development by companies, etc. It is shown that mining is important for Indonesian economy. Methodology applied in this paper is data analysis using dynamic commodity and macroeconomic models and forecast using linear and polynomial regression with its trend line.
Indonesia is one of the mineral rich developing countries in the world. Indonesia has a large quantity of mineral resources such as natural oil and gas, hard minerals (metallic, non metallic/industrial mineral, coal, and stone), because it is located in the Pacific ring of fire. Mineral and energy commodities have always been giving contribution to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Indonesia besides doing regional development, because of its potential mineral resources. Trade of mineral commodity aims is to gain from trade of mineral to increase economic growth through Balance of Trade (BOT). Mineral commodity markets have been volatile for a long time. The trends of mineral commodity prices have been fluctuated and recently it changed dramatically due to commodity prices to increase within only several years. The aims of this study are to comprehend recent contribution of mining sector to Indonesian economy 1990-2014 and to analyze forecasting of mineral commodity future prices until 2025. The price trends of commodity mineral is increasing from time to time, but sometimes decreasing because of world crisis, scarcity, and other problems in the world related to mining, trade, and relationship between countries, such as fundamentals matter, including long-run demand growth, technical change that opens up new sources of supply, changes that transform the operation of financial markets, and macro-economic shocks, etc. Mining sector contribute about 6-12% of Indonesian Gross Domestic Product and increasing from time to time. Contribution of mining includes trade of mineral commodity, regional development by companies, etc. It is shown that mining is important for Indonesian economy. Methodology applied in this paper is data analysis using dynamic commodity and macroeconomic models and forecast using linear and polynomial regression with its trend line.
Trend of Mineral Commodity Price and its Impact on the Indonesia Economy 1990-2025
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20150404.11
Earth Sciences
2015-06-29
© Science Publishing Group
Ukar Wijaya Soelistijo
Pakerti Lutzow Anjani
Hanif Ikhsan Pratama
Hariono La Pili
Mixsindo Korra Herdyanti
Trend of Mineral Commodity Price and its Impact on the Indonesia Economy 1990-2025
4
4
145
145
2015-06-29
2015-06-29
10.11648/j.earth.20150404.11
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150404.11
© Science Publishing Group
The Migration Mechanism of Arsenic Ions Under the Effect of Temperature in Yunnan Laterite
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150404.12
This article considers the temperature influence of pollution transportation base on the transportation model of pollution in groundwater to finish the article by using Macro and micro method, the combination of theoretical analysis, experimental research methods and numerical simulation. Established the transportation model for consider temperature and solved by soft of Femlab. The result shows that the more close to the pollution source, the concentration is larger, the farther away from the source of pollution; the concentration value is small, which is consistent with the trend of pollution in the general case. With the increase of temperature, the concentration of pollution increased, among them, the higher the temperature, the rising trend is more obvious, that the migration and diffusion of pollution in the role of temperature. The temperature could increase depth of pollution diffusion. The results will also provide theoretical guide and technological support for the sustainable development of Yunnan economy and ecology as well as for the future laboratory experiments.
This article considers the temperature influence of pollution transportation base on the transportation model of pollution in groundwater to finish the article by using Macro and micro method, the combination of theoretical analysis, experimental research methods and numerical simulation. Established the transportation model for consider temperature and solved by soft of Femlab. The result shows that the more close to the pollution source, the concentration is larger, the farther away from the source of pollution; the concentration value is small, which is consistent with the trend of pollution in the general case. With the increase of temperature, the concentration of pollution increased, among them, the higher the temperature, the rising trend is more obvious, that the migration and diffusion of pollution in the role of temperature. The temperature could increase depth of pollution diffusion. The results will also provide theoretical guide and technological support for the sustainable development of Yunnan economy and ecology as well as for the future laboratory experiments.
The Migration Mechanism of Arsenic Ions Under the Effect of Temperature in Yunnan Laterite
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20150404.12
Earth Sciences
2015-07-05
© Science Publishing Group
Peng Liu
Ying Huang
Min He
The Migration Mechanism of Arsenic Ions Under the Effect of Temperature in Yunnan Laterite
4
4
149
149
2015-07-05
2015-07-05
10.11648/j.earth.20150404.12
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150404.12
© Science Publishing Group
Archean Metallogeny and Crustal Evolution in the East Indian Shield
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040401.11
East Indian Shield bears the evidences of Archean metallogenic and crustal evolution like the other major shield areas of the world. The primordial continental crust in the form of more silicic bodies were floating like metallurgical slags over the hotter and denser ultramafic-mafic lithosphere (UM-ML) before 3800 Ma. Earliest sediments, now represented by the Older Metamorphic Group (OMG) , were deposited in small basins the basement of which was made of UM-ML containing rafts of primitive silicic bodies. Possibly the earliest greenstone rocks (some banded iron formation, associated high-Mg basalts and ultramafics) formed in the OMG with deformation and metamorphism continued upto about 3500 Ma. Partial melting of the lower amphibolitic crust due to underplating and asthenospheric sagging formed the tonalitic magma around 3500 Ma (Older Metamorphic Tonalitic Gneiss or OMTG) and subsequently Singhbhum Granite Type-A (Phase-I and Phase-II) around 3300 Ma both of which intruded the folded and metamorphosed OMG rocks. The major event of greenstone belt formation took place during 3500-3200 Ma both in the eastern part and in the western part of the Singhbhum granitic craton. The general trend of these two greenstone belts is NNE-SSW and they were the repositories of the Iron Ore Group (IOG) sediments, volcanics and ultrmafic-mafic rocks. The IOG rocks formed prolific mineralization of Fe,Mn,Cr,Ti,Cu,Ni,Au and platinum group elements(PGE). Multiple phases of tectonism and partial melting of crustal materials ultimately led to the formation of Singhbhun Granite Type-B (Phase-III) around 3100 Ma which later intruded the folded and metamorphosed IOG rocks. From 3000 to 2500 Ma cratonization of the East Indian Shield formed the batholitic mass of Singhbhum granitic complex at the central part with the greenstone belts on either side. Around 2500 Ma the Singhbhum craton became tectonically active again with the formation of three mobile belts – Dalma in the north, Dhanjori-Simlipal in the east and Jagannathpur-Malangtoli in the west.The sediments and lavas of these mobile belts are the major resources of Proterozoic Fe, Ti, Au, U, P, Cu, Pb, Mo, W and Ni mineralization
East Indian Shield bears the evidences of Archean metallogenic and crustal evolution like the other major shield areas of the world. The primordial continental crust in the form of more silicic bodies were floating like metallurgical slags over the hotter and denser ultramafic-mafic lithosphere (UM-ML) before 3800 Ma. Earliest sediments, now represented by the Older Metamorphic Group (OMG) , were deposited in small basins the basement of which was made of UM-ML containing rafts of primitive silicic bodies. Possibly the earliest greenstone rocks (some banded iron formation, associated high-Mg basalts and ultramafics) formed in the OMG with deformation and metamorphism continued upto about 3500 Ma. Partial melting of the lower amphibolitic crust due to underplating and asthenospheric sagging formed the tonalitic magma around 3500 Ma (Older Metamorphic Tonalitic Gneiss or OMTG) and subsequently Singhbhum Granite Type-A (Phase-I and Phase-II) around 3300 Ma both of which intruded the folded and metamorphosed OMG rocks. The major event of greenstone belt formation took place during 3500-3200 Ma both in the eastern part and in the western part of the Singhbhum granitic craton. The general trend of these two greenstone belts is NNE-SSW and they were the repositories of the Iron Ore Group (IOG) sediments, volcanics and ultrmafic-mafic rocks. The IOG rocks formed prolific mineralization of Fe,Mn,Cr,Ti,Cu,Ni,Au and platinum group elements(PGE). Multiple phases of tectonism and partial melting of crustal materials ultimately led to the formation of Singhbhun Granite Type-B (Phase-III) around 3100 Ma which later intruded the folded and metamorphosed IOG rocks. From 3000 to 2500 Ma cratonization of the East Indian Shield formed the batholitic mass of Singhbhum granitic complex at the central part with the greenstone belts on either side. Around 2500 Ma the Singhbhum craton became tectonically active again with the formation of three mobile belts – Dalma in the north, Dhanjori-Simlipal in the east and Jagannathpur-Malangtoli in the west.The sediments and lavas of these mobile belts are the major resources of Proterozoic Fe, Ti, Au, U, P, Cu, Pb, Mo, W and Ni mineralization
Archean Metallogeny and Crustal Evolution in the East Indian Shield
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040401.11
Earth Sciences
2015-07-29
© Science Publishing Group
Tapan Kumar Baidya
Archean Metallogeny and Crustal Evolution in the East Indian Shield
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© Science Publishing Group
Titaniferous Magnetite Deposits Associated with Archean Greenstone Belt in the East Indian Sheild
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040401.12
In the East Indian Shield, occurrence of titaniferous magnetite deposits associated with the Archean Greenstone belt occur in Kumhardubi, Betjharan and Nuasahi areas of Odisha and Dublabera area of Jharkhand. The ore bodies comprise lenses, veins, bands and patches within gabbroic rocks. Petrogenetic studies have revealed the primary and secondary mineral constituents of the ores such as titanomagnetite, ilmenite, hematite, spinel, cobaltite, goethite, martite, rutile and silicate gangue minerals. Various crystallographic intergrowths are resulted from exsolution & oxidation at different temperatures during cooling of the sub-solidus magma. Chemical analyses show that the ore contains 10.35 -17.68 wt.% TiO2, 0.148 – 0.227 wt.% V2O3 and 32.75 – 67.39 wt.% Fe2O3. Different geochemical composition diagrams confirm their tholeiitic origin. The formation of the massive ore bodies is referred to late magmatic crystallization from tholeiitic magma followed by Fe-Ti enriched residual liquid injection within the host rocks. Syn to late formation of the magnetite ores along with gabbro-anorthositic intrusive with respect to the Archean Greenstone Belt of East Indian Shield is suggested
In the East Indian Shield, occurrence of titaniferous magnetite deposits associated with the Archean Greenstone belt occur in Kumhardubi, Betjharan and Nuasahi areas of Odisha and Dublabera area of Jharkhand. The ore bodies comprise lenses, veins, bands and patches within gabbroic rocks. Petrogenetic studies have revealed the primary and secondary mineral constituents of the ores such as titanomagnetite, ilmenite, hematite, spinel, cobaltite, goethite, martite, rutile and silicate gangue minerals. Various crystallographic intergrowths are resulted from exsolution & oxidation at different temperatures during cooling of the sub-solidus magma. Chemical analyses show that the ore contains 10.35 -17.68 wt.% TiO2, 0.148 – 0.227 wt.% V2O3 and 32.75 – 67.39 wt.% Fe2O3. Different geochemical composition diagrams confirm their tholeiitic origin. The formation of the massive ore bodies is referred to late magmatic crystallization from tholeiitic magma followed by Fe-Ti enriched residual liquid injection within the host rocks. Syn to late formation of the magnetite ores along with gabbro-anorthositic intrusive with respect to the Archean Greenstone Belt of East Indian Shield is suggested
Titaniferous Magnetite Deposits Associated with Archean Greenstone Belt in the East Indian Sheild
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040401.12
Earth Sciences
2015-07-29
© Science Publishing Group
Riya Mondal
Tapan Kr. Baidya
Titaniferous Magnetite Deposits Associated with Archean Greenstone Belt in the East Indian Sheild
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© Science Publishing Group
Iron and Manganese Mineralization Associated with Archean Greenstone Belt in Joda-Noamundi Sector, Odisha, East Indian Shield
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040401.13
Iron and manganese mineralization in the Joda-Noamundi sector is associated with Banded Iron Formation of the Archean Iron Ore Group of rocks (3.5-3.0 Ga).Both Mn and Fe mineralization is stratiform and stratabound. In the Noamundi basin the estimated reserve of Fe and Mn -ores are 3.3 Gt and 130 Mt respectively. The Fe and Mn-mineralization are also genetically related to each other. A detailed petrology, mineralogy and mineral chemistry of the ores show their evolution with respect to different tectonic phases. During the first phase of deformation and metamorphism Fe-protolith generated magnetite and Mn-protolth generated bixbyite, hausmannite, jacobsite and braunite. During second phase martitized magnetite and hematite in Fe-ore and hollandite, psilomelane and pyrolusite in Mn-ore were generated. During supergene events low temperature higher oxide minerals were generated from the metamorphic and hydrothermal Fe and Mn –ore minerals. The stratigraphic status of the Fe- and Mn- ores with respect to crustal evolution has been established
Iron and manganese mineralization in the Joda-Noamundi sector is associated with Banded Iron Formation of the Archean Iron Ore Group of rocks (3.5-3.0 Ga).Both Mn and Fe mineralization is stratiform and stratabound. In the Noamundi basin the estimated reserve of Fe and Mn -ores are 3.3 Gt and 130 Mt respectively. The Fe and Mn-mineralization are also genetically related to each other. A detailed petrology, mineralogy and mineral chemistry of the ores show their evolution with respect to different tectonic phases. During the first phase of deformation and metamorphism Fe-protolith generated magnetite and Mn-protolth generated bixbyite, hausmannite, jacobsite and braunite. During second phase martitized magnetite and hematite in Fe-ore and hollandite, psilomelane and pyrolusite in Mn-ore were generated. During supergene events low temperature higher oxide minerals were generated from the metamorphic and hydrothermal Fe and Mn –ore minerals. The stratigraphic status of the Fe- and Mn- ores with respect to crustal evolution has been established
Iron and Manganese Mineralization Associated with Archean Greenstone Belt in Joda-Noamundi Sector, Odisha, East Indian Shield
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040401.13
Earth Sciences
2015-07-29
© Science Publishing Group
R. Ghosh
D. Chakraborty
M. Halder
T. K. Baidya
Iron and Manganese Mineralization Associated with Archean Greenstone Belt in Joda-Noamundi Sector, Odisha, East Indian Shield
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http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040401.13
© Science Publishing Group
Gold Mineralisation in Chigargunta Area of the Kolar Schist Belt, South India- A Part of the Archean Greenstone Belt
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040401.14
Gold mineralisation is reported for the first time in ‘Champion gneiss’ (quartzo-feldspathic schist) a felsic unit,in the eastern sector of the Chigargunta area (Lat: 120 430300N, Long:780 150 000E) of the Kolar schist belt, South India, during 1979-80. Quartzo-feldspathic gneiss and hornblende schist are the predominant rock types of the area. These rocks are characterised by a strong pervasive foliation trending N50E –S50W to N200E - S200W with easterly dips of 70-85. In the northern part of the area the rocks are folded with the foliation which is axial planar. Lower to middle amphibolite facies metamorphism is widespread in the area. Gold mineralisation is localised along shear zones which are ductile to brittle in nature. These zones are parallel to subparallel to the trend of foliation in the host rock and are characterized by strong mylonitic fabric, profuse quartz venation and hydrothermal alteration. Pyrite and pyrrhotite are the dominant sulphides. Gold occurs in native form. This felsic hosted gold mineralisation termed as E-2 lode (for exploration purpose) is estimated to contain a reserve of 3.13 million tonnes averaging 4.7 g/t gold. Besides, this lode there are several loads ( E-1,E-3, etc) occur within mafic units as well as in felsic unit adjacent to E-2 lode with different reserves, within the schist belt. Epigenetic gold mineralisation shows a close temporal and spatial relationship to late Archean (2700-2500 m.y) crustal accretion, stabilisation and granulite formation in the South Indian Shield. The present work delineate, the nature of mineralization in felsic unitwithin the schist belt which was not considered as source rock of gold mineralization during the period and left untouched until the present work
Gold mineralisation is reported for the first time in ‘Champion gneiss’ (quartzo-feldspathic schist) a felsic unit,in the eastern sector of the Chigargunta area (Lat: 120 430300N, Long:780 150 000E) of the Kolar schist belt, South India, during 1979-80. Quartzo-feldspathic gneiss and hornblende schist are the predominant rock types of the area. These rocks are characterised by a strong pervasive foliation trending N50E –S50W to N200E - S200W with easterly dips of 70-85. In the northern part of the area the rocks are folded with the foliation which is axial planar. Lower to middle amphibolite facies metamorphism is widespread in the area. Gold mineralisation is localised along shear zones which are ductile to brittle in nature. These zones are parallel to subparallel to the trend of foliation in the host rock and are characterized by strong mylonitic fabric, profuse quartz venation and hydrothermal alteration. Pyrite and pyrrhotite are the dominant sulphides. Gold occurs in native form. This felsic hosted gold mineralisation termed as E-2 lode (for exploration purpose) is estimated to contain a reserve of 3.13 million tonnes averaging 4.7 g/t gold. Besides, this lode there are several loads ( E-1,E-3, etc) occur within mafic units as well as in felsic unit adjacent to E-2 lode with different reserves, within the schist belt. Epigenetic gold mineralisation shows a close temporal and spatial relationship to late Archean (2700-2500 m.y) crustal accretion, stabilisation and granulite formation in the South Indian Shield. The present work delineate, the nature of mineralization in felsic unitwithin the schist belt which was not considered as source rock of gold mineralization during the period and left untouched until the present work
Gold Mineralisation in Chigargunta Area of the Kolar Schist Belt, South India- A Part of the Archean Greenstone Belt
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040401.14
Earth Sciences
2015-07-29
© Science Publishing Group
Debasish Roy
Gold Mineralisation in Chigargunta Area of the Kolar Schist Belt, South India- A Part of the Archean Greenstone Belt
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© Science Publishing Group
Validation of Satellite-Based PERSIANN Rainfall Estimates Using Surface-Based APHRODITE Data over Iran
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150405.11
Surface-based precipitation measurements with high accuracy on different spatial-temporal scales have a crucial importance in different land-use planning sectors, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, such as Iran. Because the density of spatial distribution of rain-gauges is not uniform throughout the country, satellite sensor technology is considered useful for precipitation monitoring over the study area. In this study, PERSIANN satellite-based rainfall data were validated through comparison with the APHRODITE surface-based precipitation data. The validation was carried out for annual and seasonal precipitation, as well as an inter-annual comparison. Our analysis was based on a visual comparison and a statistical approach, including linear regression and spatial correlation between APHRODITE and PERSIANN datasets for each 0.25°×0.25° grid cell in the entire country, in the Caspian Sea region, and in the Zagros Mountains, indicating spatial correlation coefficients of 0.62, 0.62, 0.47, respectively. Both APHRODITE data and PERSIANN data showed that spatial distribution of mean annual and seasonal precipitation over Iran has two main patterns: along the Caspian Sea and along the Zagros Mountain chain. In general, PERSIANN underestimates high rainfall rates by 5.5 mm/day in winter but overestimates the low rainfalls in annual and seasonal scales by 0.9 mm/day in summer.
Surface-based precipitation measurements with high accuracy on different spatial-temporal scales have a crucial importance in different land-use planning sectors, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, such as Iran. Because the density of spatial distribution of rain-gauges is not uniform throughout the country, satellite sensor technology is considered useful for precipitation monitoring over the study area. In this study, PERSIANN satellite-based rainfall data were validated through comparison with the APHRODITE surface-based precipitation data. The validation was carried out for annual and seasonal precipitation, as well as an inter-annual comparison. Our analysis was based on a visual comparison and a statistical approach, including linear regression and spatial correlation between APHRODITE and PERSIANN datasets for each 0.25°×0.25° grid cell in the entire country, in the Caspian Sea region, and in the Zagros Mountains, indicating spatial correlation coefficients of 0.62, 0.62, 0.47, respectively. Both APHRODITE data and PERSIANN data showed that spatial distribution of mean annual and seasonal precipitation over Iran has two main patterns: along the Caspian Sea and along the Zagros Mountain chain. In general, PERSIANN underestimates high rainfall rates by 5.5 mm/day in winter but overestimates the low rainfalls in annual and seasonal scales by 0.9 mm/day in summer.
Validation of Satellite-Based PERSIANN Rainfall Estimates Using Surface-Based APHRODITE Data over Iran
doi:10.11648/j.earth.20150405.11
Earth Sciences
2015-09-06
© Science Publishing Group
Javad Bodagh Jamli
Validation of Satellite-Based PERSIANN Rainfall Estimates Using Surface-Based APHRODITE Data over Iran
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2015-09-06
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http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.20150405.11
© Science Publishing Group
Some Urgent Issues of Georgia’s Geography
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.11
Geography is facing new challenges in Georgia. On the one hand, it is related to evaluation of current condition of the country and its geo-ecological issues, and on the other hand, the requirements of practice and the prospects of socio-economic development. The requirements of practice imply several urgent issues such as new orientation of the land use and the optimal use of the region's natural-resource potential, demographic stability and development of mountainous areas. The prospects of the country’s development include the urgent issues such as global environmental problems and prediction of geo-system conditions, development of military geography and planning of environmentally strained areas. In order to present and solve these problems effectively, Georgian School of Geography should play a key role, which will become a prerequisite for its further development.
Geography is facing new challenges in Georgia. On the one hand, it is related to evaluation of current condition of the country and its geo-ecological issues, and on the other hand, the requirements of practice and the prospects of socio-economic development. The requirements of practice imply several urgent issues such as new orientation of the land use and the optimal use of the region's natural-resource potential, demographic stability and development of mountainous areas. The prospects of the country’s development include the urgent issues such as global environmental problems and prediction of geo-system conditions, development of military geography and planning of environmentally strained areas. In order to present and solve these problems effectively, Georgian School of Geography should play a key role, which will become a prerequisite for its further development.
Some Urgent Issues of Georgia’s Geography
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.11
Earth Sciences
2015-07-02
© Science Publishing Group
Nodar Elizbarashvili
Giorgi Meladze
Maia Meladze
David Svanadze
Lizi Gadrani
Josef Lazarashvili
Some Urgent Issues of Georgia’s Geography
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http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.11
© Science Publishing Group
Anthropological Researches by Academician Aleksandre Javakhishvili
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.12
Aleksandre Javakhishvili, a Georgian scientist of the beginning of the XX has established quite high standards in research methodology of Anthropology. He was the first who studied Kartvelian (Georgian) ethnographic (Kartlian, Kakhetian, Gurian, Mingrelian, Imeretian, Rachian, Mtiuletian) groups by use of different fields of sciences (History, Geography, Linguistics, Ethnology). He formulated a programme for researches in the Caucasian Anthropology; raised an issue of the necessity to found a scientific-public organization that would systematically study the anthropology of the Caucasus and its neighboring regions; he was the first who marked the autochthony of the Caucasian race; distinguished the western, eastern and metamorphic anthropologic types among Georgians; studied the dolichocephalism among Georgians; carried out researches about the local peculiarities of the settlements in the Georgian Caucasus and geographical distribution of the population.
Aleksandre Javakhishvili, a Georgian scientist of the beginning of the XX has established quite high standards in research methodology of Anthropology. He was the first who studied Kartvelian (Georgian) ethnographic (Kartlian, Kakhetian, Gurian, Mingrelian, Imeretian, Rachian, Mtiuletian) groups by use of different fields of sciences (History, Geography, Linguistics, Ethnology). He formulated a programme for researches in the Caucasian Anthropology; raised an issue of the necessity to found a scientific-public organization that would systematically study the anthropology of the Caucasus and its neighboring regions; he was the first who marked the autochthony of the Caucasian race; distinguished the western, eastern and metamorphic anthropologic types among Georgians; studied the dolichocephalism among Georgians; carried out researches about the local peculiarities of the settlements in the Georgian Caucasus and geographical distribution of the population.
Anthropological Researches by Academician Aleksandre Javakhishvili
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.12
Earth Sciences
2015-07-02
© Science Publishing Group
Bitadze Liana
Anthropological Researches by Academician Aleksandre Javakhishvili
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2015-07-02
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© Science Publishing Group
Role of Irrigation Farming in the Perspective Development of Agriculture in Samtskhe Region
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.13
The most important branch of economy in Samtskhe region is agriculture, and the region has quite a high potential of agricultural production. This is evidenced by the quite fruitful and diversified types of soil in the region. In respect of productivity, brown forest soils, brown meadow, grey-brown and forest sierozems in Samtskhe, with most of the agricultural plots located over them are particularly fruitful. The small irrigation channels here are similar to those found all over Georgia and in the mountainous regions of Caucasus. Their sizes, structure, water conducting capacity and irrigation efficiency are relevant to the conditions of a mountainous relief. The conducting capacity of the irrigation channels is little, and most of the channels have ground or exposed beds. Provided the melioration system is put to order and by considering the fruitful soils spread in the region it will be possible to boost the agricultural productivity significantly.
The most important branch of economy in Samtskhe region is agriculture, and the region has quite a high potential of agricultural production. This is evidenced by the quite fruitful and diversified types of soil in the region. In respect of productivity, brown forest soils, brown meadow, grey-brown and forest sierozems in Samtskhe, with most of the agricultural plots located over them are particularly fruitful. The small irrigation channels here are similar to those found all over Georgia and in the mountainous regions of Caucasus. Their sizes, structure, water conducting capacity and irrigation efficiency are relevant to the conditions of a mountainous relief. The conducting capacity of the irrigation channels is little, and most of the channels have ground or exposed beds. Provided the melioration system is put to order and by considering the fruitful soils spread in the region it will be possible to boost the agricultural productivity significantly.
Role of Irrigation Farming in the Perspective Development of Agriculture in Samtskhe Region
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.13
Earth Sciences
2015-07-02
© Science Publishing Group
Besik Kalandadze
Vazha Trapaidze
Lamzira Lagidze
Zurab Laoshvili
Ilia Kalandadze
Role of Irrigation Farming in the Perspective Development of Agriculture in Samtskhe Region
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2015-07-02
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© Science Publishing Group
Author’s Interpretation of Toponyms of the Historical Sources and the Hagiographic Literary Works
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.14
Geographical names give us lots of noteworthy information about the historical, geographical, political, economic, religious, cultural, etc. picture of a denotation. Due to this the onomastic data are the valuable sources to study the history, language, dialectology, geography, geology, archeology and ethnography of a country. In Georgia one hardly find a small place without a name. Towns, hamlets, villages, groves, gardens, vineyards, arable fields, hills, mountains, water, grassland, former settlements and sometimes trees, rocks and large rocks are given names. Researchers interested in geographical names accept two basic ways of origin of toponyms: 1. either via the toponimization of appellatives without derivation (which is called semantic word-formation: changing of a lexeme’s status, while the form remains unchangeable) or derivation: 2.transonimization of proper names: transition from one onymic class to another as well as transtoponimization, transhydronimization, and a transoikonymization, etc. The toponyms originated via the first (toponimization) method is called the primary toponyms, and the ones originated via the second (transonimization) method - secondary toponyms. The research goal is to study an author’s interpretation and semantic properties of the geographic names of hagiographic works and historical sources of the 5-10th cc. In the sources under research the authors give us not only the information on the location of any geographic object, but they offer a noteworthy explanation of some toponyms and microtoponyms as well. An author’s etymology has extra linguistic and linguistic character and therefore it is of scientific importance, the motivation - persuasive. Existing standpoints on location and explanation of some geographical names (Darialani, Tsertaisni, Satakhve, Zarzma, Garedja, Divri, Tskhenistsqali) are represented in comment form. On the basis of analyzed material the paper demonstrates that the ancient Georgian artistic and historical written sources show the ways and means of origin of toponyms. The cited episodes highlight the basic principle of toponymic word-derivation - the contents of a name is relevant to an object’s name. This is achieved via the following the grammatical means: 1. elision (either determinatum or determinandum component is elided: tsertaisni ! adgilni tsertaisni; bakta ! adgili bakta). 2. derivation (Sataxve – structurally it is a derived form); 3. word-amalgamation (Sheshistavi, Zarzma, Gareja… are structurally compound two-component entries).
Geographical names give us lots of noteworthy information about the historical, geographical, political, economic, religious, cultural, etc. picture of a denotation. Due to this the onomastic data are the valuable sources to study the history, language, dialectology, geography, geology, archeology and ethnography of a country. In Georgia one hardly find a small place without a name. Towns, hamlets, villages, groves, gardens, vineyards, arable fields, hills, mountains, water, grassland, former settlements and sometimes trees, rocks and large rocks are given names. Researchers interested in geographical names accept two basic ways of origin of toponyms: 1. either via the toponimization of appellatives without derivation (which is called semantic word-formation: changing of a lexeme’s status, while the form remains unchangeable) or derivation: 2.transonimization of proper names: transition from one onymic class to another as well as transtoponimization, transhydronimization, and a transoikonymization, etc. The toponyms originated via the first (toponimization) method is called the primary toponyms, and the ones originated via the second (transonimization) method - secondary toponyms. The research goal is to study an author’s interpretation and semantic properties of the geographic names of hagiographic works and historical sources of the 5-10th cc. In the sources under research the authors give us not only the information on the location of any geographic object, but they offer a noteworthy explanation of some toponyms and microtoponyms as well. An author’s etymology has extra linguistic and linguistic character and therefore it is of scientific importance, the motivation - persuasive. Existing standpoints on location and explanation of some geographical names (Darialani, Tsertaisni, Satakhve, Zarzma, Garedja, Divri, Tskhenistsqali) are represented in comment form. On the basis of analyzed material the paper demonstrates that the ancient Georgian artistic and historical written sources show the ways and means of origin of toponyms. The cited episodes highlight the basic principle of toponymic word-derivation - the contents of a name is relevant to an object’s name. This is achieved via the following the grammatical means: 1. elision (either determinatum or determinandum component is elided: tsertaisni ! adgilni tsertaisni; bakta ! adgili bakta). 2. derivation (Sataxve – structurally it is a derived form); 3. word-amalgamation (Sheshistavi, Zarzma, Gareja… are structurally compound two-component entries).
Author’s Interpretation of Toponyms of the Historical Sources and the Hagiographic Literary Works
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.14
Earth Sciences
2015-07-02
© Science Publishing Group
Kirtadze Daredjan
Author’s Interpretation of Toponyms of the Historical Sources and the Hagiographic Literary Works
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2015-07-02
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http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.14
© Science Publishing Group
The Height Regularities of the Water Industry Balance of Georgia
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.15
The current political and socio-economic changes in the last centuries of 90-th was adequately reflected on water management problematic issues. There is a lack of statistical material that complicates the research activity. To this point of view the primary task was to choose representative period in the dynamic of utilizing water recourses. 80-th of last century is considered as such kind of period stated in the previous article. In terms of territorial differentiation water industry balance is estimated in the previous article according to the high-rise zones of western and eastern Georgian regions. The annual quantity of river runoff on the territory does not depict completely the water supply of population and various branches of economy. The full assessment is possible by the intra annual mode of water balance in the hydrological periods and phenological seasons. On the other hand, in Georgia, in mountain regions the elements of water balance are amenable to high-rise regularities, so the intra annual mode of water balance should be considered in the context of high-rise extent. The previous work is devoted to territorial distribution of indicators of water balance in Georgia according to high-rise zones in the frame of intra annual aspect.
The current political and socio-economic changes in the last centuries of 90-th was adequately reflected on water management problematic issues. There is a lack of statistical material that complicates the research activity. To this point of view the primary task was to choose representative period in the dynamic of utilizing water recourses. 80-th of last century is considered as such kind of period stated in the previous article. In terms of territorial differentiation water industry balance is estimated in the previous article according to the high-rise zones of western and eastern Georgian regions. The annual quantity of river runoff on the territory does not depict completely the water supply of population and various branches of economy. The full assessment is possible by the intra annual mode of water balance in the hydrological periods and phenological seasons. On the other hand, in Georgia, in mountain regions the elements of water balance are amenable to high-rise regularities, so the intra annual mode of water balance should be considered in the context of high-rise extent. The previous work is devoted to territorial distribution of indicators of water balance in Georgia according to high-rise zones in the frame of intra annual aspect.
The Height Regularities of the Water Industry Balance of Georgia
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.15
Earth Sciences
2015-07-02
© Science Publishing Group
Nino Kezevadze
The Height Regularities of the Water Industry Balance of Georgia
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29
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2015-07-02
2015-07-02
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.15
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.15
© Science Publishing Group
Bioarcheology of the Bronze Age Population in the Kumo-Manych Depression (Russia)
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.16
In this work we present a morphological study of postcranial skeletons from the Yamna-culture burials of the following barrow groups: Zunda-Tolga, Manjikiny, Mu-Sharet, Ostrovnoy, which are situated in the right bank of the Manych river in Kalmykia, and Peschany-V, located near the village of Remontnoe in the south of Rostov Oblast. The Yamna culture is the earliest culture of the Bronze Age, which existed in the studied territories in 3300-2350 BC. We also used some finds from the Yamna-culture burials in Rostov Oblast as comparative material. This collection is kept in the Southern Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Rostov-on-Don. The burials were situated in various parts of the Don catchment area within Rostov Oblast (Lower Don region). The skeletal materials were collected by the joint expedition of the State Historical Museum (Moscow) and the Kalmyk Institute of Economic and Legal Research in the territory of the Republic of Kalmykia and in the south of Rostov Oblast. The collection is kept in the archaeological department of the State Historical Museum. We have taken measurements and then calculated various indices of skeletal proportions, as well as robustness and strength indices of limb bones. Variations in values of various indices are presented in works of Y.Y. Roginsky and M.G. Levin and E.N. Khrisanfova. The intravital body length was reconstructed with the use of Bunak, Dupertuis and Hadden formulae. Thus, in terms of limb proportions, intravital body length, some peculiarities of body build and morphology of limb bones, the two series are not completely homogeneous. The common features for the Yamna-culture people from the barrow burials in the territory of the Republic of Kalmykia are: quite long legs, comparatively short tibiae, broad shoulders among males, average or above-the-average intravital body length. All the long arm bones and tibiae were characterized by considerable robustness. The Yamna-culture people from the Lower Don region were also united by comparatively long legs, average correlation between the antebrachium and tibia length, slightly elongated tibiae in relation to femurs. The intravital body length was average or above the average. The individuals were characterized by average or high robustness of humeri, radii, femurs and tibiae.
In this work we present a morphological study of postcranial skeletons from the Yamna-culture burials of the following barrow groups: Zunda-Tolga, Manjikiny, Mu-Sharet, Ostrovnoy, which are situated in the right bank of the Manych river in Kalmykia, and Peschany-V, located near the village of Remontnoe in the south of Rostov Oblast. The Yamna culture is the earliest culture of the Bronze Age, which existed in the studied territories in 3300-2350 BC. We also used some finds from the Yamna-culture burials in Rostov Oblast as comparative material. This collection is kept in the Southern Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Rostov-on-Don. The burials were situated in various parts of the Don catchment area within Rostov Oblast (Lower Don region). The skeletal materials were collected by the joint expedition of the State Historical Museum (Moscow) and the Kalmyk Institute of Economic and Legal Research in the territory of the Republic of Kalmykia and in the south of Rostov Oblast. The collection is kept in the archaeological department of the State Historical Museum. We have taken measurements and then calculated various indices of skeletal proportions, as well as robustness and strength indices of limb bones. Variations in values of various indices are presented in works of Y.Y. Roginsky and M.G. Levin and E.N. Khrisanfova. The intravital body length was reconstructed with the use of Bunak, Dupertuis and Hadden formulae. Thus, in terms of limb proportions, intravital body length, some peculiarities of body build and morphology of limb bones, the two series are not completely homogeneous. The common features for the Yamna-culture people from the barrow burials in the territory of the Republic of Kalmykia are: quite long legs, comparatively short tibiae, broad shoulders among males, average or above-the-average intravital body length. All the long arm bones and tibiae were characterized by considerable robustness. The Yamna-culture people from the Lower Don region were also united by comparatively long legs, average correlation between the antebrachium and tibia length, slightly elongated tibiae in relation to femurs. The intravital body length was average or above the average. The individuals were characterized by average or high robustness of humeri, radii, femurs and tibiae.
Bioarcheology of the Bronze Age Population in the Kumo-Manych Depression (Russia)
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.16
Earth Sciences
2015-07-02
© Science Publishing Group
Borutskaya Svetlana
Vasilyev Sergey
Bioarcheology of the Bronze Age Population in the Kumo-Manych Depression (Russia)
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34
34
2015-07-02
2015-07-02
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.16
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.16
© Science Publishing Group
Close Range Photogrammetry in the Survey of the Coastal Area Geoecological Conditions (on the Example of Portugal)
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.17
Close range digital photogrammetry, which involves the application of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), has been used in a growing number of diverse applications across different scientific disciplines. Our objective was to use the mentioned method in the survey of the contemporary geoecological conditions of the coastal area on the example of Portuguese northwest coastal zone. The coastal zone can be subdivided into two geomorphological sectors: Sector 1, between the Minho River and the town of Espinho, where the coastal segments consist of estuaries, sandy and shingle beaches with rocky outcrops, and Holocene dune systems. The estuaries and the foredunes in particular are very degraded by human activities; and Sector 2, between Espinho and the Mondego Cape, where coastal lagoons and Holocene dune systems occur. We chose two beaches for surveying – Aguçadoura and Ramalha to which the drone swinglet CAM took the photos. We used the ground control software eMotion 2 to plan the flights over the study area and controlled the drone’s trajectory during flight. After processing the obtained images in the program of AgisoftPhotoscanPro, we generated the 2D orthophotos and 3D digital elevation models (DEM) of the research sections. At this stage of study we derived the above product without using the ground control points, or we used only the camera GPS data. Based on these models the compilation of the large-scale maps of high resolution (1cm-5cm) will be possible in the GISs for monitoring and management of the geoecological state of the mentioned beaches in case to precise the x, y and z values of the models with the geodetic device of Differential GPSs in the selected ground control points (GCP).
Close range digital photogrammetry, which involves the application of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), has been used in a growing number of diverse applications across different scientific disciplines. Our objective was to use the mentioned method in the survey of the contemporary geoecological conditions of the coastal area on the example of Portuguese northwest coastal zone. The coastal zone can be subdivided into two geomorphological sectors: Sector 1, between the Minho River and the town of Espinho, where the coastal segments consist of estuaries, sandy and shingle beaches with rocky outcrops, and Holocene dune systems. The estuaries and the foredunes in particular are very degraded by human activities; and Sector 2, between Espinho and the Mondego Cape, where coastal lagoons and Holocene dune systems occur. We chose two beaches for surveying – Aguçadoura and Ramalha to which the drone swinglet CAM took the photos. We used the ground control software eMotion 2 to plan the flights over the study area and controlled the drone’s trajectory during flight. After processing the obtained images in the program of AgisoftPhotoscanPro, we generated the 2D orthophotos and 3D digital elevation models (DEM) of the research sections. At this stage of study we derived the above product without using the ground control points, or we used only the camera GPS data. Based on these models the compilation of the large-scale maps of high resolution (1cm-5cm) will be possible in the GISs for monitoring and management of the geoecological state of the mentioned beaches in case to precise the x, y and z values of the models with the geodetic device of Differential GPSs in the selected ground control points (GCP).
Close Range Photogrammetry in the Survey of the Coastal Area Geoecological Conditions (on the Example of Portugal)
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.17
Earth Sciences
2015-07-07
© Science Publishing Group
Nino Chikhradze
Renato Henriques
Mikheil Elashvili
Giorgi Kirkitadze
Zurab Janelidze
Nana Bolashvili
George Lominadze
Close Range Photogrammetry in the Survey of the Coastal Area Geoecological Conditions (on the Example of Portugal)
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40
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2015-07-07
2015-07-07
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.17
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.17
© Science Publishing Group
Samtskhe-Javakheti Agriculture Sectors Development and its Ecological Problems
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.18
The paper presents the modern condition analyses and development prospects of the main agriculture sectors of a mountainous region in the southern part of Georgia – Samtskhe-Javakheti. On the basis of literary sources and internet material examination, certain sectors’ value in provisioning of republic has been assessed. The importance of agricultural sector vectoring in the side agriculture has been outlined. Results of the research are interpreted in charts and graphic models. Field research process has revealed a growing number of ecological problems related to biological and household waste and also caused by "chemicalization". The research has shown that the issues about protection from soil erosion and the water supply acute in the region. It greatly hinders the development of agriculture and it's a great challenge for the region’s population, who are mostly employed in the agricultural sector. During the research, different types of humus and soil nutrient elements supplies, soil structure and physical properties were investigated. Ecological problems solution and agricultural production’s sustainable development activation, which will ensure ecological condition improvement in agricultural sectors, healthy products production and that will create a firm foundation for withdrawing the agricultural production import, are considered to be the main challenges of the region.
The paper presents the modern condition analyses and development prospects of the main agriculture sectors of a mountainous region in the southern part of Georgia – Samtskhe-Javakheti. On the basis of literary sources and internet material examination, certain sectors’ value in provisioning of republic has been assessed. The importance of agricultural sector vectoring in the side agriculture has been outlined. Results of the research are interpreted in charts and graphic models. Field research process has revealed a growing number of ecological problems related to biological and household waste and also caused by "chemicalization". The research has shown that the issues about protection from soil erosion and the water supply acute in the region. It greatly hinders the development of agriculture and it's a great challenge for the region’s population, who are mostly employed in the agricultural sector. During the research, different types of humus and soil nutrient elements supplies, soil structure and physical properties were investigated. Ecological problems solution and agricultural production’s sustainable development activation, which will ensure ecological condition improvement in agricultural sectors, healthy products production and that will create a firm foundation for withdrawing the agricultural production import, are considered to be the main challenges of the region.
Samtskhe-Javakheti Agriculture Sectors Development and its Ecological Problems
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.18
Earth Sciences
2015-07-07
© Science Publishing Group
Revaz Tolordava
Malkhaz Gvinjilia
Koba Korsantia
Tengiz Gordeziani
Zurab Laoshvili
Samtskhe-Javakheti Agriculture Sectors Development and its Ecological Problems
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45
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2015-07-07
2015-07-07
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.18
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.18
© Science Publishing Group
Modern Conceptual and Technological Approaches to the Georgia Black Sea Coastline Protection
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.19
Economic Economic development of the world's maritime nations, including Georgia, is directly related to the coastal environment and the ongoing natural or anthropogenic processes which determined its sustainability and exploitation opportunities. In the coastal zone are located the urbanized areas, agricultural lands, motorways and recreational complexes. Georgia's Black Sea resorts continue to attract tourists to the resort areas of the coast that required the expansion, restoration of eroded beaches and the development of appropriate infrastructure at international standards. Unfortunately, the prevalence of the parochial bureaucratic interests over environmental issues and ignorance of negative coastal process development, inefficiency of implemented coast protection measures and limited funding for carrying out necessary works, caused Georgian shoreline erosion. In this regard, coast may not be discussed as isolated body because it is part of one natural system and changes caused by natural phenomena or man-made impact will be reflected on the coast of neighboring countries. In whole, human intervention (withdrawal of beach sediments, river channel regulations, dam and reservoirs constructions and port structures assembling in coastal zone) in natural processes not only improved country economic state, but together with current natural events, due to sea level rise, causing storm phenomena activation and land inundation, shore subsiding, provoked the increase of coast erosion tendency, activation of beach disappearance and threatened to located there infrastructure with destruction and huge material losses. The recovery of latter requires several billion U.S. dollars worth of materials and works. In the presented article is discussed the problem of Georgia Black Sea coast erosion and necessary measures for its protection on the basis of conceptual approaches, which also imply the using of new technologies and methods of beach protection. In case of given proposal implementation in practice, the results of planned research can be widely applied both for sandy as well as pebbly-gravel beaches of any sea.
Economic Economic development of the world's maritime nations, including Georgia, is directly related to the coastal environment and the ongoing natural or anthropogenic processes which determined its sustainability and exploitation opportunities. In the coastal zone are located the urbanized areas, agricultural lands, motorways and recreational complexes. Georgia's Black Sea resorts continue to attract tourists to the resort areas of the coast that required the expansion, restoration of eroded beaches and the development of appropriate infrastructure at international standards. Unfortunately, the prevalence of the parochial bureaucratic interests over environmental issues and ignorance of negative coastal process development, inefficiency of implemented coast protection measures and limited funding for carrying out necessary works, caused Georgian shoreline erosion. In this regard, coast may not be discussed as isolated body because it is part of one natural system and changes caused by natural phenomena or man-made impact will be reflected on the coast of neighboring countries. In whole, human intervention (withdrawal of beach sediments, river channel regulations, dam and reservoirs constructions and port structures assembling in coastal zone) in natural processes not only improved country economic state, but together with current natural events, due to sea level rise, causing storm phenomena activation and land inundation, shore subsiding, provoked the increase of coast erosion tendency, activation of beach disappearance and threatened to located there infrastructure with destruction and huge material losses. The recovery of latter requires several billion U.S. dollars worth of materials and works. In the presented article is discussed the problem of Georgia Black Sea coast erosion and necessary measures for its protection on the basis of conceptual approaches, which also imply the using of new technologies and methods of beach protection. In case of given proposal implementation in practice, the results of planned research can be widely applied both for sandy as well as pebbly-gravel beaches of any sea.
Modern Conceptual and Technological Approaches to the Georgia Black Sea Coastline Protection
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.19
Earth Sciences
2015-07-07
© Science Publishing Group
Nodar Tsivtsivadze
Lia Matchavariani
Lamzira Lagidze
Nargiz Motsonelidze
George Ivanov
Nino Paichadze
Modern Conceptual and Technological Approaches to the Georgia Black Sea Coastline Protection
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2015-07-07
2015-07-07
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.19
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.19
© Science Publishing Group
Anthropogenic Changes of Caucasus Forest Landscapes
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.20
Caucasus eco-region occupies more than 583 thousand sq km and are represented 25 types, 62 sub-types and 205 genera of landscapes. Due to several climatically contrasting regions the landscapes are quite diverse here. Sub-tropical humid conditions, also experiencing mostly hot, dry weather year-round dominate in the lowland and foothills of Caucasus. forests are mostly concentrated in low- and middle-mountain landscapes. Comparatively little are of forests are concentrated in the lowlands and plains. High volcanic plateaus of South Caucasus also are without forest areas and are represented by steppe vegetation. The main purpose of this work is to determine anthropogenic changes forest landscapes of Caucasus and to evaluate the degree of this changes. The trend of anthropogenic change of forests is observed almost on whole territory of eco-region, especially in plain areas. Therefore, the decreasing trend of forest area, phytomass amount, also the ecological functions are evident. The research is based on the landscape approach. A great set of field data were used. All these data were processed by means of GIS-technologies.
Caucasus eco-region occupies more than 583 thousand sq km and are represented 25 types, 62 sub-types and 205 genera of landscapes. Due to several climatically contrasting regions the landscapes are quite diverse here. Sub-tropical humid conditions, also experiencing mostly hot, dry weather year-round dominate in the lowland and foothills of Caucasus. forests are mostly concentrated in low- and middle-mountain landscapes. Comparatively little are of forests are concentrated in the lowlands and plains. High volcanic plateaus of South Caucasus also are without forest areas and are represented by steppe vegetation. The main purpose of this work is to determine anthropogenic changes forest landscapes of Caucasus and to evaluate the degree of this changes. The trend of anthropogenic change of forests is observed almost on whole territory of eco-region, especially in plain areas. Therefore, the decreasing trend of forest area, phytomass amount, also the ecological functions are evident. The research is based on the landscape approach. A great set of field data were used. All these data were processed by means of GIS-technologies.
Anthropogenic Changes of Caucasus Forest Landscapes
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.20
Earth Sciences
2015-07-07
© Science Publishing Group
Dali Nikolaishvili
George Dvalashvili
Anthropogenic Changes of Caucasus Forest Landscapes
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59
59
2015-07-07
2015-07-07
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.20
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.20
© Science Publishing Group
Problems with the Drawing a State Border along the River Psou Section
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.21
The work deals with analysis of problems with the drawing a state border along the River Psou Section. The problem is difficult to solute due to the modern complex geopolitical situation in the Caucasus region, wrong decisions of the past and historical documents and cartographic sources with the inadequately shown reality. One of the major hampering factors is the state practice of territorial spacing of the former Soviet republics implying giving the state borders of a country having lost its independence a status of administrative borders. The main purpose of the study is to give the geographical-cartometry analysis of the historical transformations of the River Psou section of the Georgian state border. A lot of various cartographic sources, governmental Resolutions, historical and statistical data also were used as the basis of the study. Different factors as one of the main factors determining the historical change of this section of state border are discussed in the paper. The research was conducted in different main directions: the evaluation of historical transformations of state border throughout of XIX-XX centuries and in modern times, factors hampering the regulation of the state border, issue of the territorial belonging of village Aibga, etc. In order to study these issues have used different methods as well as GIS-technologies. The main results of research are determination of some issues connected with state border along the river Psou section: 1) the frequency of historical transformations; (2) the major factors causing this historical transformations; (3) incompliance between the existing cartographic sources and governmental resolutions in relation to the registration of all five districts of village Aibga, (4) the facts of incorrect depiction of the territorial belonging of the river Psou section in the XX-century scientific and statistical sources.
The work deals with analysis of problems with the drawing a state border along the River Psou Section. The problem is difficult to solute due to the modern complex geopolitical situation in the Caucasus region, wrong decisions of the past and historical documents and cartographic sources with the inadequately shown reality. One of the major hampering factors is the state practice of territorial spacing of the former Soviet republics implying giving the state borders of a country having lost its independence a status of administrative borders. The main purpose of the study is to give the geographical-cartometry analysis of the historical transformations of the River Psou section of the Georgian state border. A lot of various cartographic sources, governmental Resolutions, historical and statistical data also were used as the basis of the study. Different factors as one of the main factors determining the historical change of this section of state border are discussed in the paper. The research was conducted in different main directions: the evaluation of historical transformations of state border throughout of XIX-XX centuries and in modern times, factors hampering the regulation of the state border, issue of the territorial belonging of village Aibga, etc. In order to study these issues have used different methods as well as GIS-technologies. The main results of research are determination of some issues connected with state border along the river Psou section: 1) the frequency of historical transformations; (2) the major factors causing this historical transformations; (3) incompliance between the existing cartographic sources and governmental resolutions in relation to the registration of all five districts of village Aibga, (4) the facts of incorrect depiction of the territorial belonging of the river Psou section in the XX-century scientific and statistical sources.
Problems with the Drawing a State Border along the River Psou Section
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.21
Earth Sciences
2015-07-14
© Science Publishing Group
Dali Nikolaishvili
Revaz Tolordava
Davit Sartania
Lali Kutateladze
Problems with the Drawing a State Border along the River Psou Section
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67
67
2015-07-14
2015-07-14
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.21
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.21
© Science Publishing Group
Vegetation of Colchis Mires
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.23
Georgia with the admired Colchis lowland surrounded by the Great and Lesser Caucasus Ranges belongs to critical ecological hotspot region. Because of its climatic and geographic situation the Colchis lowland represents a centre of biodiversity and human activity on the transition of Europe and Asia. The main habitats in the Colchis lowland are the relict Colchis forests, the peatlands, the wetlands, coastal sand zones, river mouths, open fresh and salt water areas. Globally extraordinary habitats in the Colchis lowland are the relict Colchis forests and the percolation bogs only existing here. The Colchis forests are unique ecosystems of characteristic warm-humid broad-leaved deciduous mixed forests with evergreen understory, rich in endemic and relict tertiary species, which are mostly spread on the Colchis lowland and the adjacent foothills of the Lesser Caucasus Range. The main purpose of the work is the study of main habitats of Colchis Lowland and determining the value for biodiversity. The different habitats and their vegetation were studied during the period of 1998-2008. The vegetation mapping with the determination of the cover of the vascular plant and moss species followed the abundance method after DAFOR (D –Dominant, - Abundant, F – Frequent, O-Occasional, R-Rare). On the basis of the research the list of Rare and endangered plant species of Colchis wetlands was revealed. Some of them (5 habitats) has a high value for biodiversity.
Georgia with the admired Colchis lowland surrounded by the Great and Lesser Caucasus Ranges belongs to critical ecological hotspot region. Because of its climatic and geographic situation the Colchis lowland represents a centre of biodiversity and human activity on the transition of Europe and Asia. The main habitats in the Colchis lowland are the relict Colchis forests, the peatlands, the wetlands, coastal sand zones, river mouths, open fresh and salt water areas. Globally extraordinary habitats in the Colchis lowland are the relict Colchis forests and the percolation bogs only existing here. The Colchis forests are unique ecosystems of characteristic warm-humid broad-leaved deciduous mixed forests with evergreen understory, rich in endemic and relict tertiary species, which are mostly spread on the Colchis lowland and the adjacent foothills of the Lesser Caucasus Range. The main purpose of the work is the study of main habitats of Colchis Lowland and determining the value for biodiversity. The different habitats and their vegetation were studied during the period of 1998-2008. The vegetation mapping with the determination of the cover of the vascular plant and moss species followed the abundance method after DAFOR (D –Dominant, - Abundant, F – Frequent, O-Occasional, R-Rare). On the basis of the research the list of Rare and endangered plant species of Colchis wetlands was revealed. Some of them (5 habitats) has a high value for biodiversity.
Vegetation of Colchis Mires
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.23
Earth Sciences
2015-07-15
© Science Publishing Group
Izolda Matchutadze
Tamar Bakuradze
Tamar Tcheishvil
Bulbuli Bolkvadze
Vegetation of Colchis Mires
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5
78
78
2015-07-15
2015-07-15
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.23
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.23
© Science Publishing Group
Alexandre Javakhishvili - the Founder of Modern Geography in Georgia
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.24
The article describes the contribution of Alexandre Javakhishvili to the geographic, cartographic and anthropologic development of Georgia. The scientific production created under his editorship and management is also described. The scientist contributed much to the study of history of the geographical development, where Vakhushti Bagrationi played a leading role. The article shows the scientist’s merit in the geographical and cartographic development.His studies developed the methodological issues of the different branches of geographical science (principles of geomorphological zoning, definition of the subject of regional geomorphology, classification of the types of relief and their relations to the geology and tectonic structure, etc.), identified the physical-geographical peculiarities of the territory of Georgia (thermal zones, types of precipitations, etc.) and developed zoning plans (geomorphological, climatic, hydrological, etc.), developed a series of thematic maps of Georgia in different scales (general geographic, geomorphological, climatic, etc.) and analyzed the anthropogenic types of different corners of Georgia and identified the Georgians as an individual anthropogenic type.
The article describes the contribution of Alexandre Javakhishvili to the geographic, cartographic and anthropologic development of Georgia. The scientific production created under his editorship and management is also described. The scientist contributed much to the study of history of the geographical development, where Vakhushti Bagrationi played a leading role. The article shows the scientist’s merit in the geographical and cartographic development.His studies developed the methodological issues of the different branches of geographical science (principles of geomorphological zoning, definition of the subject of regional geomorphology, classification of the types of relief and their relations to the geology and tectonic structure, etc.), identified the physical-geographical peculiarities of the territory of Georgia (thermal zones, types of precipitations, etc.) and developed zoning plans (geomorphological, climatic, hydrological, etc.), developed a series of thematic maps of Georgia in different scales (general geographic, geomorphological, climatic, etc.) and analyzed the anthropogenic types of different corners of Georgia and identified the Georgians as an individual anthropogenic type.
Alexandre Javakhishvili - the Founder of Modern Geography in Georgia
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.24
Earth Sciences
2015-07-23
© Science Publishing Group
Koba Kharadze
Alexandre Javakhishvili - the Founder of Modern Geography in Georgia
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83
83
2015-07-23
2015-07-23
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.24
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.24
© Science Publishing Group
Synthesis and Study of Tetrathioarsenates of d10-Metals
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.25
For the first time in hydrochemical conditions tetrathioarsenates of d10-metals by composition Ag3AsS4 and M3(AsS4)2•H2O, where M-Zn, Cd or Hg and X=(Zn) or 2(Cd, Hg), were synthesized. Their composition, constitution, reaction of dehydration and thermal shock resistance in 20-1000 interval were studied by means of thermal analysis, UR-spectroscopy, X-ray crystal determination and derivatographic research.
For the first time in hydrochemical conditions tetrathioarsenates of d10-metals by composition Ag3AsS4 and M3(AsS4)2•H2O, where M-Zn, Cd or Hg and X=(Zn) or 2(Cd, Hg), were synthesized. Their composition, constitution, reaction of dehydration and thermal shock resistance in 20-1000 interval were studied by means of thermal analysis, UR-spectroscopy, X-ray crystal determination and derivatographic research.
Synthesis and Study of Tetrathioarsenates of d10-Metals
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.25
Earth Sciences
2015-07-23
© Science Publishing Group
I. Didbaridze
M. Rusia
K. Rukhaia
Synthesis and Study of Tetrathioarsenates of d10-Metals
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87
87
2015-07-23
2015-07-23
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.25
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.25
© Science Publishing Group
Impact of the Relief on the Territorial Distribution of the Precipitations on the Example of Samtskhe-Javakheti Region
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.27
The climatic conditions in Samtskhe-Javakheti region differ from those in other regions of Georgia. The major reason for the diversified climate in the region is the nature of the underlying surface and altitude above from the sea level (900-3,300 m), nature of the surface jointing, alteration of ridges and valleys, vegetation cover (forest, meadow, valley, water basins) causing unequal warming of the underlying surface and intensification of the circulation processes. The vegetation cover in the region is transformed intensely under the influence of the anthropogenic factors what drastically changes the climatic conditions. Atmospheric precipitations are one of the climate-forming factors having its influence on the climate and determining the degree of humidification. The annual amount of atmospheric precipitations on the territory of Samtskhe-Javakheti varies between 400 and 1400 mm. It is minimal on Javakheti Plateau and Akhaltsikhe basin. The amount of precipitations on Javakheti Plateau first decreases and then, increases gradually at higher altitudes. In the basin of the river Paravani, at 1,400 m asl, the amount of precipitations decreases by 6-17 mm on average after each 100 m altitude, while above 1400 m asl, increases first, slightly (by 4-20 mm) and then, significantly (by 44-76 mm after each 100 m). The maximum amount of precipitations fallen in the area in one month in the cold period of the year is 202 mm, and the least amount is 0.1 mm. The distribution of precipitation on the territory of Samtskhe-Javakheti changes depending on the altitude, and at lower elevations, the amount of liquid precipitations is 75%, 18% are hard precipitations and 8% are mixed ones, while in the high-mountainous zone, these indicators are 60 %, 31 % and 9%, respectively. A decisive role in the territorial distribution of precipitations is played by the relief forms. The region is bordered by high ridges from all its sides. The ridges transform the atmospheric circulation processes and hamper a free flow of air masses. Therefore, the air masses in the region are of a descending nature, with the amount of moisture reduced in it (the condensation is limited), and as a result, the amount of precipitations on the major territory of Samtskhe-Javakheti is little. A continental type of the annual distribution of precipitations dominates all over the territory of the given region
The climatic conditions in Samtskhe-Javakheti region differ from those in other regions of Georgia. The major reason for the diversified climate in the region is the nature of the underlying surface and altitude above from the sea level (900-3,300 m), nature of the surface jointing, alteration of ridges and valleys, vegetation cover (forest, meadow, valley, water basins) causing unequal warming of the underlying surface and intensification of the circulation processes. The vegetation cover in the region is transformed intensely under the influence of the anthropogenic factors what drastically changes the climatic conditions. Atmospheric precipitations are one of the climate-forming factors having its influence on the climate and determining the degree of humidification. The annual amount of atmospheric precipitations on the territory of Samtskhe-Javakheti varies between 400 and 1400 mm. It is minimal on Javakheti Plateau and Akhaltsikhe basin. The amount of precipitations on Javakheti Plateau first decreases and then, increases gradually at higher altitudes. In the basin of the river Paravani, at 1,400 m asl, the amount of precipitations decreases by 6-17 mm on average after each 100 m altitude, while above 1400 m asl, increases first, slightly (by 4-20 mm) and then, significantly (by 44-76 mm after each 100 m). The maximum amount of precipitations fallen in the area in one month in the cold period of the year is 202 mm, and the least amount is 0.1 mm. The distribution of precipitation on the territory of Samtskhe-Javakheti changes depending on the altitude, and at lower elevations, the amount of liquid precipitations is 75%, 18% are hard precipitations and 8% are mixed ones, while in the high-mountainous zone, these indicators are 60 %, 31 % and 9%, respectively. A decisive role in the territorial distribution of precipitations is played by the relief forms. The region is bordered by high ridges from all its sides. The ridges transform the atmospheric circulation processes and hamper a free flow of air masses. Therefore, the air masses in the region are of a descending nature, with the amount of moisture reduced in it (the condensation is limited), and as a result, the amount of precipitations on the major territory of Samtskhe-Javakheti is little. A continental type of the annual distribution of precipitations dominates all over the territory of the given region
Impact of the Relief on the Territorial Distribution of the Precipitations on the Example of Samtskhe-Javakheti Region
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.27
Earth Sciences
2015-07-28
© Science Publishing Group
Lamzira Lagidze
Vazha Trapaidze
Besik Kalandadze
Impact of the Relief on the Territorial Distribution of the Precipitations on the Example of Samtskhe-Javakheti Region
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98
98
2015-07-28
2015-07-28
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.27
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.27
© Science Publishing Group
Data Gap Analysis for the Sectoral Planning of Dedopistskato Municipality on Landscape Basis
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.28
This electronic document is a “live” template. The various components of your paper [title, text, heads, etc.] are already defined on the style sheet, as illustrated by the portions given in this document. The abstract should be between 40 and 400 words
This electronic document is a “live” template. The various components of your paper [title, text, heads, etc.] are already defined on the style sheet, as illustrated by the portions given in this document. The abstract should be between 40 and 400 words
Data Gap Analysis for the Sectoral Planning of Dedopistskato Municipality on Landscape Basis
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.28
Earth Sciences
2015-07-28
© Science Publishing Group
Nino Sulkhanishvili
Data Gap Analysis for the Sectoral Planning of Dedopistskato Municipality on Landscape Basis
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2015-07-28
2015-07-28
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.28
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.28
© Science Publishing Group
Synthesis Tetrathioarsenate as a Precipitant of Ammoniate Ions of Transitional Metals
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.26
Synthesized substances obtained by sodium tetrathioarsenate reaction with silver(I), cobalt (II), mickelous (II), copper (II), zincous, cadmium and mercury have been studied by IR- spectroscopy, X-ray analysis
Synthesized substances obtained by sodium tetrathioarsenate reaction with silver(I), cobalt (II), mickelous (II), copper (II), zincous, cadmium and mercury have been studied by IR- spectroscopy, X-ray analysis
Synthesis Tetrathioarsenate as a Precipitant of Ammoniate Ions of Transitional Metals
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.26
Earth Sciences
2015-07-25
© Science Publishing Group
I. Didbaridze
M. Rusia
K. Rukhaia
Synthesis Tetrathioarsenate as a Precipitant of Ammoniate Ions of Transitional Metals
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90
90
2015-07-25
2015-07-25
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.26
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.26
© Science Publishing Group
Assessment of Agri-Resource Potential of West Georgia and Landscape Zoning for Dissemination Actinidia
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.29
The methodology has been developed and established in West Georgia for agro-resource potential spatial distribution regularities for ACTINIDIA (according to hypsometric levels and types of landscapes of Georgia). On the basis of a large amount of data processing and systematization, also different data scattered in various scientific-research organizations agri-resource potential of West Georgia were determined. For Multiple database creation and processing, based on GIS technology. Conducted large-scale landscape zoning
The methodology has been developed and established in West Georgia for agro-resource potential spatial distribution regularities for ACTINIDIA (according to hypsometric levels and types of landscapes of Georgia). On the basis of a large amount of data processing and systematization, also different data scattered in various scientific-research organizations agri-resource potential of West Georgia were determined. For Multiple database creation and processing, based on GIS technology. Conducted large-scale landscape zoning
Assessment of Agri-Resource Potential of West Georgia and Landscape Zoning for Dissemination Actinidia
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.29
Earth Sciences
2015-07-29
© Science Publishing Group
Seperteladze Zurab
Davitaia Eter
Memarne Guram
Khalvashi Neli
Gaprindashvili George
Assessment of Agri-Resource Potential of West Georgia and Landscape Zoning for Dissemination Actinidia
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107
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2015-07-29
2015-07-29
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.29
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.29
© Science Publishing Group
Geomorphologic Features of Sataplia-Tskaltubo Limestone Massif
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.30
One of the important factors of karsto- and speleogenezis of Sataplia-Tskaltubo limestone massif is a still poorly studied geomorphological peculiarity of the region. Karsto- and speleogenezis is conditioned by the geological structure and tectonics. In the working process we used the already approved fundamental and applied research methods, both traditional and modern method systems. We carried out the detailed geomorphologic and karst-speleological exploration of the research area, conducted a large-scale survey works, on the basis of which we compiled the geomorphologic schematic map of Tskaltubo limestone massif and singled out the relief’s genetic types
One of the important factors of karsto- and speleogenezis of Sataplia-Tskaltubo limestone massif is a still poorly studied geomorphological peculiarity of the region. Karsto- and speleogenezis is conditioned by the geological structure and tectonics. In the working process we used the already approved fundamental and applied research methods, both traditional and modern method systems. We carried out the detailed geomorphologic and karst-speleological exploration of the research area, conducted a large-scale survey works, on the basis of which we compiled the geomorphologic schematic map of Tskaltubo limestone massif and singled out the relief’s genetic types
Geomorphologic Features of Sataplia-Tskaltubo Limestone Massif
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.30
Earth Sciences
2015-07-29
© Science Publishing Group
Tsikarishvili Kukuri
Lezhava Zaza
Asanidze Lasha
Bolashvili Nana
Chikhradze Nino
Chartolani Giorgi
Geomorphologic Features of Sataplia-Tskaltubo Limestone Massif
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112
112
2015-07-29
2015-07-29
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.30
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.30
© Science Publishing Group
Risk Analysis of the River Bank Washout and Flooding of the Areas
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.31
Quantitative assessment and forecasting of one or another hydrological phenomenon is important for estimation of vulnerability of natural riverside. Mechanism of riverside destruction by water is considered in the represented work as random process, which is depended both on influence of flow speed and on riverside resistance. As the indicator of this process against such influence is taken riverside characteristic – vulnerability, for determination of which is used a well-known model of the theory of reliability, called “load-strength” model. Proceeding from this fact a result obtained via theoretical formalization in the form of represented formula is considered at this stage as approximation and time factor should be taken into account in the modeling process that will be a step forward in relation to current reality.
Quantitative assessment and forecasting of one or another hydrological phenomenon is important for estimation of vulnerability of natural riverside. Mechanism of riverside destruction by water is considered in the represented work as random process, which is depended both on influence of flow speed and on riverside resistance. As the indicator of this process against such influence is taken riverside characteristic – vulnerability, for determination of which is used a well-known model of the theory of reliability, called “load-strength” model. Proceeding from this fact a result obtained via theoretical formalization in the form of represented formula is considered at this stage as approximation and time factor should be taken into account in the modeling process that will be a step forward in relation to current reality.
Risk Analysis of the River Bank Washout and Flooding of the Areas
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.31
Earth Sciences
2015-09-07
© Science Publishing Group
David Kereselidze
Vazha Trapaidze
Giorgi Bregvadze
Irakli Megrelidze
Risk Analysis of the River Bank Washout and Flooding of the Areas
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119
119
2015-09-07
2015-09-07
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.31
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.31
© Science Publishing Group
Anthropogenic Transformation of Landscapes of Colchis Lowland and Surrounding Foothills
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.22
On the basis of different data, the anthropogenic transformation of landscapes of Colchis lowland and surrounding foothills (CLSF) are revealed. Using the several maps (Vegetation and Landscape maps, topographic maps, depicting the different historical periods), the degree of these changes were determined. Data analysis has shown that the anthropogenic transformation of Colchis landscapes is of very diverse character and this diversity is related to many physical-geographical and human factors.
On the basis of different data, the anthropogenic transformation of landscapes of Colchis lowland and surrounding foothills (CLSF) are revealed. Using the several maps (Vegetation and Landscape maps, topographic maps, depicting the different historical periods), the degree of these changes were determined. Data analysis has shown that the anthropogenic transformation of Colchis landscapes is of very diverse character and this diversity is related to many physical-geographical and human factors.
Anthropogenic Transformation of Landscapes of Colchis Lowland and Surrounding Foothills
doi:10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.22
Earth Sciences
2015-07-14
© Science Publishing Group
Dali Nikolaishvili
Elene Salukvadze
Nana Bolashvili
Nino George Chikhradze
Lia Matchavariani
Anthropogenic Transformation of Landscapes of Colchis Lowland and Surrounding Foothills
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72
2015-07-14
2015-07-14
10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.22
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?journalid=161&doi=10.11648/j.earth.s.2015040501.22
© Science Publishing Group